Volcanic Seven Summits
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The Volcanic Seven Summits are the highest volcanoes on each of the seven continents, just as the Seven Summits are the highest peaks (irrespective of geological origin) on each of the seven continents. Summiting all of the Volcanic Seven is regarded as a mountaineering challenge, first postulated as such in 1999.
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[edit] Volcanic Seven Summits definitions
Due to different interpretations of continental borders (geological, geographical, geopolitical) several definitions for the highest summits per continent and the number of continents are possible. The number of seven continents used here is based on the continent model used in Western Europe and the United States. The continents as defined here are on a geological and geographical basis, not geopolitical.
An additional complication in determining the highest volcanic summits is defining exactly what constitutes a volcano, and how much topographic prominence it must have relative to any nearby non-volcanic peaks in order to qualify. For the purposes of this list, the summits must be an actual eruptive volcanic center, not merely made of volcanic rocks which were uplifted by other geological processes. In addition, a topographic prominence of at least 1,000 ft (305 m) is required, so that the list includes only genuine volcanic mountains and not minor outpourings of lava which happened to leak to the Earth's surface in high-altitude regions (see the discussion under Asia below).
[edit] Africa, North America, Antarctica
The highest volcano on each of these continents is easily defined and undisputed.
[edit] Australia / Oceania
Although there are a few minor volcanoes on the Australian mainland, this list recognizes that the island of New Guinea is an integral part of the Australian continent. Numerous scientific papers written in the 1970s and 1980s confirm that Mount Giluwe in Papua New Guinea is in fact an old eroded volcano (see e.g. [1], [2], [3]), unlike the higher mountains of New Guinea which are all non-volcanic in origin. Therefore Giluwe is the highest volcano on the Australian continent.
Even if this continent is defined instead as Oceania (thus adding New Zealand and Polynesia including Hawaii), Giluwe remains the highest volcano since it exceeds the elevation of Mauna Kea in Hawaii and any volcano in New Zealand.
[edit] Europe
The generally accepted geographical border between Europe and Asia runs along the crest of the Ural Mountains in central Russia and of the Caucasus along the southern border of Russia. Since the massive twin-peaked stratovolcano of Mount Elbrus rises just north of the crest, it is the highest summit in Europe and also the highest volcano.
[edit] South America
Aconcagua, the highest peak in South America, was long ago considered to be a volcano, but the current geological consensus is that the mountain consists of uplifted rocks of volcanic origin which did not erupt into its current form, so it is not a volcano.
A more difficult problem is determining which of the true South American volcanoes is the highest. Topographic maps of the Chile / Argentina border region which contains the highest peaks are of notoriously poor accuracy, with elevation errors exceeding 100 meters in many cases. The current consensus based on the most recent measurements places Ojos del Salado as the 2nd highest peak (and highest volcano) in South America, significantly higher than Monte Pissis.[4]
[edit] Asia
The most problematic situation in defining the Volcanic Seven Summits is in Asia. The 5,610 m (18,406 ft) Mount Damavand is a very large isolated stratovolcano with over 15000 ft (4600 m) of topographic prominence, yet there may be volcanic vents in Tibet where lava has erupted at a higher elevation than Damavand's summit, in the Kunlun Volcanic Group at up to 5,808 m (19,055 ft).[5] However, information is extremely scarce about these volcanoes, and the listed elevation is of unknown accuracy or reliability. In addition, these cinder cones are unlikely to have a prominence greater than 1,000 ft (305 m) above the plateau from which they have erupted. The volcanoes in the list below all have prominences far exceeding that threshold.
[edit] Table of the Volcanic Seven Summits
| Volcanic Seven Summits (sorted by elevation) | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Volcano | Elevation | Prominence | Continent | Range | Country | ||
| Ojos del Salado | 6,893 m (22,615 ft) | 3,700 m (12,139 ft) | South America | Andes | Chile/Argentina | ||
| Kilimanjaro † | 5,895 m (19,341 ft) | 5,885 m (19,308 ft) | Africa | Kilimanjaro | Tanzania | ||
| Elbrus † | 5,642 m (18,510 ft) | 4,741 m (15,554 ft) | Europe | Caucasus | Russia | ||
| Pico de Orizaba | 5,636 m (18,491 ft) | 4,922 m (16,148 ft) | North America | Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt | Mexico | ||
| Damavand | 5,610 m (18,406 ft) | 4,667 m (15,312 ft) | Asia | Alborz | Iran | ||
| Mount Giluwe | 4,368 m (14,331 ft) | 2,488 m (8,163 ft) | Australia / Oceania | Southern Highlands | Papua New Guinea | ||
| Mount Sidley | 4,285 m (14,058 ft) | 2,517 m (8,258 ft) | Antarctica | Executive Committee Range | - | ||
† NOTE: Two of these "Volcanic Seven Summits", Kilimanjaro and Elbrus, are also members of the Seven Summits.
[edit] Volcanic Seven Second Summits
Defining the second highest volcanoes (named here in analogy to the Seven Second Summits) on each continent is a bit more complicated, because the continental definitions become critical. Once again as above, the second highest volcanoes in Africa, North America, and Antarctica are undisputed, and also in South America and Asia once the highest volcano has been determined.
The main problem is Australia / Oceania. Mount Hagen in Papua New Guinea is certainly the second highest volcano on the Australian continent, but expanding the continental definition to span Oceania drops Hagen to 4th behind Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii.
In the case of Europe, Kazbek is the second highest volcano. Although it lies entirely in the country of Georgia, whose European status is sometimes disputed, Kazbek lies entirely on the European side of the Caucasus watershed. The river Terek rises to the south and west of Kazbek but drains northwards to Russia [6] [7].
All variant definitions are listed in the table below, so there are 8 volcanoes included:
| Volcanic Seven Second Summits (sorted by elevation) | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Volcano | Elevation | Prominence | Continent | Range | Country | ||
| Monte Pissis | 6,795 m (22,293 ft) | 2,140 m (7,021 ft) | South America | Andes | Argentina | ||
| Popocatepetl | 5,426 m (17,802 ft) | 3,020 m (9,908 ft) | North America | Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt | Mexico | ||
| Mount Kenya † | 5,199 m (17,057 ft) | 3,825 m (12,549 ft) | Africa | Mount Kenya | Kenya | ||
| Mount Ararat | 5,137 m (16,854 ft) | 3,611 m (11,847 ft) | Asia | Mount Ararat | Turkey | ||
| Kazbek | 5,034 m (16,516 ft) | 2,353 m (7,720 ft) | Europe | Caucasus | Georgia | ||
| Mauna Kea | 4,205 m (13,796 ft) | 4,205 m (13,796 ft) | Oceania | Hawaii (island) | United States | ||
| Mount Erebus | 3,794 m (12,448 ft) | 3,794 m (12,448 ft) | Antarctica | Ross Island | - | ||
| Mount Hagen | 3,778 m (12,395 ft) | > 900 m (3000 ft) | Australia | Hagen Range | Papua New Guinea | ||
† NOTE: Only one of these "Volcanic Seven Second Summits", Mount Kenya, is also a member of the Seven Second Summits.
[edit] References
- The Volcanic "Seven Summits" (November 1999). Retrieved on 2007-02-28.
- SummitPost - Volcanic Seven Summits (January 2006). Retrieved on 2007-02-28.
- ^ Blake, D. H.; E. Löffler (1971). "Volcanic and Glacial Landforms on Mount Giluwe, Territory of Papua and New Guinea". Geological Society of America Bulletin 82 (6): 1605–1614.
- ^ Löffler, E.; D. E. Mackenzie and A. W. Webb (1980). "Potassium-argon ages from some of the Papua New Guinea highlands volcanoes, and their relevance to Pleistocene geomorphic history". Journal of the Geological Society of Australia 26 (7-8): 387–397.
- ^ Mackenzie, D. E. (1985). "Giluwe and Hagen; glaciated volcanoes in the rain forests of western PNG". Volcano News 19–20: 7.
- ^ Biggar, John (2005). The Andes: A Guide for Climbers (3rd Ed.). Andes. ISBN 0-9536087-2-7.
- ^ Global Volcanism Program: Kunlun Volcanic Group. Retrieved on 2007-02-28.
- ^ www.skimountaineer.com
- ^ DMA Map NK 38-5 Gora Kazbek
[edit] See also
| Volcanic Seven Summits |
|---|
| South America: Ojos del Salado • Africa: Kilimanjaro • Asia: Damavand • Europe: Elbrus • North America: Pico de Orizaba • Oceania: Giluwe • Antarctica: Sidley |
