United States Merchant Marine

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United States Merchant Marine

Seal of the US Merchant Marine
Ships:	465 (>1000 GRT)
Deck Officers:	29,000
Marine Engineers:	12,000
Unlicensed:	28,000
Source: Water Transportation Occupations. U.S. DOL, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved on 2007-03-31.

Main article: Merchant Navy

The United States Merchant Marine is made up of the nation's civilian-owned merchant ships and the men and women that crew them. The merchant marine transports cargo during peace time. In time of war, the fleet serves as an auxiliary to the United States Navy, delivering troops and supplies for the military, in addition to its standard cargoes. During wartime, conditions can be especially hazardous, and techniques such as using convoys are used.

The people of the Merchant Marine^[1] are civilian except in times of war, when they are effectively military personnel by force of the Merchant Marine Act of 1936. The term merchant mariner refers to a person in the United States Merchant Marine.

As of 2006, the United States merchant fleet numbered 465 ships of 1,000 gross register tons or over,^[2] 291 of these were dry cargo ships, 97 were tankers, and 77 passenger ships. Of those ships carrying the American flag, 51 were foreign owned. Seven hundred American-owned ships carry the flags of other nations. 264 American ships are registered in in the Bahamas and the Marshall Islands, widely considered flag of convenience countries.^[3]

Contents 1 Background 2 History 3 Today's merchant fleet 3.1 Military Sealift Command 3.2 National Defense Reserve Fleet 4 Important laws 4.1 The Seamen's Act of 1915 4.2 The Jones Act 4.3 The Merchant Marine Act 5 Noted U.S. Merchant Mariners 6 Notes 7 References 8 See also 9 External links 9.1 Legislation 9.2 Labor unions

[edit] Background

The movement of huge amounts of cargo, as well as passengers, between nations and within the United States depends on workers in water transportation occupations, known as merchant mariners. They operate and maintain deep-sea merchant ships, tugboats, towboats, ferries, dredges, excursion vessels, and other waterborne craft on the oceans, the Great Lakes, rivers, canals, and other waterways, as well as in harbors.

Captains, mates, and pilots of water vessels command or supervise the operations of ships and water vessels, both within domestic waterways and on the deep sea. Captains or masters are in overall command of the operation of a vessel, and they supervise the work of all other officers and crew. They determine the course and speed of the vessel, maneuver to avoid hazards, and continuously monitor the vessel's position with charts and navigational aides. Captains either direct or oversee crew members who steer the vessel, determine its location, operate engines, communicate with other vessels, perform maintenance, handle lines, or operate equipment on the vessel. Captains and their department heads ensure that proper procedures and safety practices are followed, check to make sure that machinery and equipment are in good working order, and oversee the loading and discharging of cargo or passengers. They also maintain logs and other records tracking the ships' movements, efforts at controlling pollution, and cargo and passengers carried.

Deck officers or mates direct the routine operation of the vessel for the captain during the shifts when they are on watch. All mates stand watch for specified periods, usually 4 hours on and 8 hours off. However, on smaller vessels, there may be only one mate (called a pilot on some inland towing vessels), who alternates watches with the captain. The mate would assume command of the ship if the captain became incapacitated. When more than one mate is necessary aboard a ship, they typically are designated chief mate or first mate, second mate, third mate, etc. Mates also supervise and coordinate activities of the crew aboard the ship. They inspect the cargo holds during loading to ensure that the load is stowed according to specifications and regulations. Mates supervise crew members engaged in maintenance and the primary upkeep of the vessel.

Pilots guide ships in and out of harbors, through straits, and on rivers and other confined waterways where a familiarity with local water depths, winds, tides, currents, and hazards such as reefs and shoals are of prime importance. Pilots on river and canal vessels usually are regular crew members, like mates. Harbor pilots are generally independent contractors who accompany vessels while they enter or leave port. Harbor pilots may pilot many ships in a single day. Motorboat operators operate small, motor-driven boats that carry six of fewer passengers on fishing charters. They also take depth soundings in turning basins and serve as liaisons between ships, between ship and shore, between harbors and beaches, or on area patrol.

Ship engineers operate, maintain, and repair propulsion engines, boilers, generators, pumps, and other machinery. Merchant marine vessels usually have four engineering officers: A chief engineer and a first, second, and third assistant engineer. Assistant engineers stand periodic watches, overseeing the safe operation of engines and machinery.

Marine oilers and more experienced qualified members of the engine department, or QMEDs, maintain the vessel in proper running order in the engine spaces below decks, under the direction of the ship's engineering officers. These workers lubricate gears, shafts, bearings, and other moving parts of engines and motors; read pressure and temperature gauges; record data; and sometimes assist with repairs and adjust machinery.

Able seamen and ordinary seamen operate the vessel and its deck equipment under the direction of the ship�s officers and keep the nonengineering areas in good condition. They stand watch, looking out for other vessels and obstructions in the ship's path, as well as for navigational aids such as buoys and lighthouses. They also steer the ship, measure water depth in shallow water, and maintain and operate deck equipment such as lifeboats, anchors, and cargo-handling gear. On vessels handling liquid cargo, mariners designated as pumpmen hook up hoses, operate pumps, and clean tanks; on tugboats or tow vessels, they tie barges together into tow units, inspect them periodically, and disconnect them when the destination is reached. When docking or departing, they handle lines. They also perform routine maintenance chores, such as repairing lines, chipping rust, and painting and cleaning decks or other areas. Experienced sailors are designated able seamen on oceangoing vessels, but may be called simply deckhands on inland waters; larger vessels usually have a boatswain, or head seaman.

A typical deep-sea merchant ship has a captain, three deck officers or mates, a chief engineer and three assistant engineers, a radio operator, plus six or more unlicensed seamen, such as able seamen, oilers, QMEDs, and cooks or food handlers. The size and service of the ship determine the number of crewmembers for a particular voyage. Small vessels operating in harbors, on rivers, or along the coast may have a crew comprising only a captain and one deckhand. The cooking responsibilities usually fall under the deckhands' duties.

On larger coastal ships, the crew may include a captain, a mate or pilot, an engineer, and seven or eight seamen. Some ships may have special unlicensed positions for entry level apprentice trainees. Unlicensed positions on a large ship may include a full-time cook, an electrician, and machinery mechanics.

Merchant Marine officers are usually trained at a maritime academy. These include:

• the federal United States Merchant Marine Academy in Kings Point, New York
• Maine Maritime Academy in Castine
• Massachusetts Maritime Academy in Buzzard's Bay
• State University of New York Maritime College in the Bronx
• Texas Maritime Academy in Galveston
• California Maritime Academy in Vallejo
• Great Lakes Maritime Academy in Traverse City, Michigan.

It is becoming increasingly difficult for unlicensed mariners to become hawsepipers and earn their merchant marine license due to increased requirements for formal training. To do so, a mariner must have sufficient sea time in a qualified rating and complete specified testing and training, such as that required by STCW.

[edit] History

The history of ships and shipping in North America goes back at least as far as the first European contact with the Americas, when Leif Erikson established a short-lived settlement called Vinland in present day Newfoundland. The existence of an actual shipping industry gradually came into being. Christopher Columbus was the first European to set foot on what would one day become U.S. territory when he came to Puerto Rico in 1493. In the 15th century, Europeans brought horses, cattle and hogs to the Americas.

Spanish colonies began to form in places like St. Augustine, Florida in 1565 and later Santa Fe, New Mexico, San Antonio, Tucson, San Diego, Los Angeles and San Francisco. Most Spanish settlements were along the California coast or the Sante Fe River in New Mexico. English colonies like Jamestown started forming as early as 1607. The connection between the American colonies and Europe, with shipping as its cornerstone, would continue to grow unhindered for almost two hundred years.

The United States Merchant Marine's first role in war took place June 12, 1775 when a group of Machias, Maine citizens, after hearing the news of what happened in Concord and Lexington, boarded and captured the schooner British warship HMS Margaretta. They were in need of critical supplies and were given the ultimatum that they either load up ships with lumber to be brought to Boston to make British barracks and receive their much needed supplies or go hungry. If they complied with Lieutenant Moore of the British Navy they betrayed the American cause so they chose to fight! After word reached Boston of this courageous feat, the Continental Congress and the various colonies issued Letters of Marque to privately owned, armed merchant ships known as privateers, which were outfitted as warships to prey on enemy merchant ships. They interrupted the British supply chain all along the eastern seaboard of the United States and across the Atlantic Ocean and the Merchant Marine's role in war began. This predates both the United States Coast Guard (1790) and the United States Navy (1797).

The Merchant Marine was active in subsequent wars, from the Confederate commerce raiders of the Civil War, to the First and Second Battle of the Atlantic in World War I and World War II. 3.1 million tons of merchant ships were lost in World War II, mariners dying at a rate of 1 in 24. All told, 733 American cargo ships were lost^[4] and 8,651 of the 215,000 who served perished on troubled waters and off enemy shores.

Merchant shipping also played its role in the wars in Vietnam and Korea. From just six ships under charter when the Korean war began, this total peaked at 255. In September 1950, when the U.S. Marine Corps went ashore at Inchon, 13 USNS cargo ships, 26 chartered American, and 34 Japanese-manned merchant ships, under the operational control of Military Sea Transportation Service participated in the invasion.

During the Vietnam War, ships crewed by civilian seamen carried 95 percent of the supplies used by our Armed Forces. Many of these ships sailed into combat zones under fire. In fact, the SS Mayaguez incident involved the capture of mariners from the American merchant ship SS Mayaguez.^[5]

Government chartered, civilian manned ships are just one way that merchant mariners are participating in current hostilities and being recognized for their contributions. For example, in late 2003, Vice Adm. David Brewer III, commander of Military Sealift Command, awarded the officers and crewmembers of the Motor Vessel Bennett the Merchant Marine Expeditionary Medal.^[6]

[edit] Today's merchant fleet

As of 2005^[7], the United States fleet consisted of 295 vessels under the U.S. flag, and 739 ships owned by U.S. interests. 203 vessels engaged in cabotage are protected under the Jones Act. In 2005, 13 vessels were ordered to be included in the U.S. fleet.

[edit] Military Sealift Command

The Military Sealift Command, or MSC is a United States Navy (USN) organization that controls most of the replenishment and military transport ships of the Navy. It first came into existence on 9 July 1949 when the Military Sea Transportation Service (MSTS) became solely responsible for the Department of Defense's ocean transport needs. The MSTS was renamed the Military Sealift Command in 1970.

Military Sealift Command ships are civilian manned, and are referred to be as being in service, rather than in commission. Some, owned by the United States Government, have the prefix USNS, standing for United States Naval Ship, whilst others, on charter or equivalent, are simply the normal merchant 'MV' or 'SS'. Their hull numbers have the prefix 'T-' in addition to the normal hull number that an equivalent commissioned ship in the USN would have.

Four programs comprise Military Sealift Command: Sealift, Naval Fleet Auxiliary Force (NFAF), Special Mission, and Prepositioning. The Sealift program provides the bulk of the MSC's supply-carrying operation and operates tankers for fuel transport and dry-cargo ships that transport equipment, vehicles, helicopters, ammunition, and supplies. The NFAF’s role is to directly replenish ships that are underway at sea, enabling them to deploy for long periods of time without having to come to port. The Special Mission program operates vessels for unique military and federal government tasks, such as submarine support and missile flight data collection and tracking. The Prepositioning program sustains the U.S. military's forward presence strategy by deploying supply ships in key areas of the ocean before it is actually needed.

In 2004, the Federal government employed approximately 5 percent of all water transportation workers, most of whom worked on supply ships for Military Sealift Command.^[8]

[edit] National Defense Reserve Fleet

The National Defense Reserve Fleet (NDRF) was established under Section 11 of the Merchant Ship Sales Act of 1946 to serve as a reserve of ships for national defense and national emergency purposes. It is a different entity than the United States Navy reserve fleets—the NDRF consists primarily of merchant ships, while the Navy version consists of warships.

NDRF anchorage sites were originally located at Stony Point in New York, Fort Eustis in the James River in Virginia, Wilmington, North Carolina, Mobile, Alabama, Beaumont, Texas, Benicia in Suisun Bay in California, Astoria, Oregon and Olympia, Washington. At its peak in 1950, the NDRF had 2,277 ships in lay-up.

NDRF vessels are now located at the James River, Beaumont and Suisun Bay fleet sites and at designated outported berths. As of January 1, 2003, the NDRF consisted of 274 vessels, which are primarily dry cargo ships with some tankers, military auxiliaries and other types. On August 31, 2006, it consisted of 251 ships. A Ready Reserve Fleet component was established in 1976 as a subset of the NDRF to provide rapid deployment of military equipment and later became known as the Ready Reserve Force, which numbers 72 vessels. An additional 28 ships are held under United States Maritime Administration (MARAD) custody for other Government agencies on a cost-reimbursable basis including the 1943 vintage battleship USS Iowa (BB-61) at Suisun Bay.

[edit] Important laws

A few laws have shaped the development of the U.S. Merchant Marine. Chief among them are the "Seamen's Act of 1915," the "Merchant Marine Act of 1920" (commonly referred to as the "Jones Act"), and the "Merchant Marine Act of 1936."

[edit] The Seamen's Act of 1915

The Seaman's Act, formally known as "Act to Promote the Welfare of American Seamen in the Merchant Marine of the United States" (Act of March 4, 1915, ch. 153, 38 Stat. 1164) was designed to improve the safety and security of United States seamen.

This act was sponsored in the Senate by Robert Marion La Follette (1855-1925) and the International Seamen's Union had a significant influence on its development. The union's president, Andrew Furuseth is often cited as being behind the content and intent of the Bill. The Act was also received significant support from Secretary of Labor, William B. Wilson.

The Seamen's Act promoted the living and working conditions of U.S. seamen, specifically applying to vessels in excess of 100 gross tons (GT), but excluding river craft. The act fundamentally changed the life of the American sailor. Among other things, it:

1. abolished the practice of imprisonment for seamen who deserted their ship
2. reduced the penalties for disobedience
3. regulated a seaman's working hours both at sea and in port
4. establishd a minimum quality for ship's food
5. regulated the payment of seamen's wages
6. require specific levels of safety, particularly the provision of lifeboats
7. require a minimum percentage of the seamen aboard a vessel to be qualified Able Seamen
8. require a minimum of 75 percent of the seamen aboard a vessel to understand the language spoken by the officers

The origin of the Bill not only lay in the increasing activities of various trade unions such as the ISU but in the increasing tensions that lead to the First World War. (The Bill was initially proposed in 1913, but took two years to pass into Law, by which time the war had started.) Another significant influence was the sinking of the RMS Titanic in 1912, which raised the issue of safety at sea in the public consciousness.

The Bill did little to help seamen who were injured in the course of their duties, and in 1920 the Merchant Marine Act, commonly known as the Jones Act was passed in an attempt to alleviate this situation.

[edit] The Jones Act

The "Jones Act" or, more formally, the "Merchant Marine Act of 1920" requires U.S.-flagged vessels to be built in the United States, owned by U.S. citizens, and documented under the laws of the United States. Documented means "registered, enrolled, or licensed under the laws of the United States." In addition, all officers and 75% of the crew must be U.S. citizens. Vessels that satisfy these requirements comprise the fleet".

Cabotage restricts the carriage of goods between United States ports to United States flagged vessels. Although the act dictates what ship owners must do if they wish to be U.S.-flagged (which, given U.S. labor standards and prevailing wages, might not be so desirable in the eyes of some fleet owners), many would argue the ability to carry passengers or cargo between two U.S. ports is really the linchpin of the Act, and that the Act's other requirements (i.e., ships engaged in cabotage must be U.S. flagged, crewed at least 75% by U.S. citizens, and built in the U.S.), are, in fact, designed to restrict the lucrative domestic shipping business.

Another important aspect of the act is that it allows injured sailors to obtain damages from their employers for the negligence of the shipowner, the captain, or fellow members of the crew.

[edit] The Merchant Marine Act

The "Merchant Marine Act of 1936" was enacted "to further the development and maintenance of an adequate and well-balanced American merchant marine, to promote the commerce of the United States, to aid in the national defense, to repeal certain former legislation, and for other purposes."

Specifically, it established the United States Maritime Commission, and required a United States Merchant Marine that:

• can carry all domestic water-borne commerce,
• can carry a substantial portion of foreign commerce,
• can serve as a naval auxiliary in time of war or national emergency,
• is owned and operated under the U.S. flag by U.S. citizens "insofar as may be practicable,"
• is composed of the best-equipped, safest, and most suitable types of vessels,
• consists of vessels constructed in the United States, and
• consists of vessels be manned with a trained and efficient citizen personnel.

The act also established federal subsidies for the construction and operation of merchant ships. Two years after the Act was passed, the U.S. Merchant Marine Cadet Corps, the forerunner to the United States Merchant Marine Academy, was established.

[edit] Noted U.S. Merchant Mariners

Further information: List of notable mariners

Famous members of the U.S. Merchant Marine have included:

• Raymond Bailey, actor
• Alex Bonner, Emmy Award winning radio and television producer
• Nathaniel Bowditch, author
• Alfonso J. Cervantes, forty-third Mayor of Saint Louis, Missouri
• Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain) - inland waters - author
• Jim Bagby, Jr., major-league baseball pitcher
• Alvin Baldus, former Democratic member of Congress
• George H. O'Brien, Jr., Medal of Honor recipient in Korean War
• Jeremiah O'Brien captain of privateer 'Unity' in Revolutionary War's first battle
• Gordon Canfield, Republican congressman from New Jersey
• Carroll O'Connor, actor
• Granville Conway, public servant, Presidential Medal for Merit recipient
• Harvey Cox, preeminent theologian and professor at Harvard Divinity School
• Joseph Curran, labor leader
• Richard Henry Dana, author
• Dan Devine, football coach
• Peter Falk, actor
• James Garner, actor
• Allen Ginsberg, poet
• Woody Guthrie, musician
• David Hackworth, retired United States Army colonel and prominent military journalist
• Sterling Hayden, actor and author
• Cisco Houston, folk singer
• Cornelius Cooper Johnson, Olympic medal-winning high jumper
• Irving Johnson, author, adventurer and sail training pioneer
• John Paul Jones, naval officer
• Jack Kerouac, author
• Joseph Stanley Kozlowski, AB, portrait and watercolor artist
• Jack London, author
• Jack Lord, actor
• Herman Melville, author
• Hugh Mulzac, master mariner and civil rights activist
• James Nachtwey, photojournalist and war photographer
• Richard Scott Prather, mystery novelist
• Denver Pyle, actor
• Joseph Resnick, Democratic congressman from New York
• Nelson Riddle, American bandleader, arranger and orchestrator
• Ernie Schroeder, American comic book artist
• Otto Scott, journalist and author
• Hubert Selby, Jr., author
• Frank Sinkwich, 1842 Heisman Trophy winner
• Gary Snyder, poet
• Joseph D. Stewart, Vice Admiral, Superintendent of the United States Merchant Marine Academy
• Montfort Stokes, Democratic Senator
• Celia Sweet, 1st female pilot in San Diego Bay; 1912
• Jim Thorpe, olympic athlete
• Eliza Thorrold, licensed tugboat master, San Francisco Bay; 1897
• Paul Teutul, Sr., founder of Orange County Choppers
• Dave Van Ronk, folk singer nicknamed the "Mayor of MacDougal Street."
• Clint Walker, actor
• Jack Warden, actor
• John S. Watson, African-American politician in New Jersey
• Ted Weems, bandleader and musician
• Carlia Wescott, 1st American woman to be granted marine engineer's license, 1922
• Haskell Wexler, Academy Award-winning American cinematographer
• Charles Williams (U.S. author), writer of hardboiled crime fiction
• Robin Wilson (author), science fiction author and editor, and former President of California State University, Chico.

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

[edit] See also

• Awards and decorations of the United States Merchant Marine
• Honourable Company of Master Mariners London
• Hospital Corpsman
• Liberty ship
• Merchant Marine
• Navy Reserve Merchant Marine Badge
• United States Maritime Service
• United States Merchant Marine Academy

[edit] External links

• Sea History at the National Maritime Historical Society
• American Merchant Marine at War
• United States Merchant Marine in history
• Casualty statistics World War II
• Recipients of Merchant Marine Distinguished Service Medal
• Seafarers International Union - War's Forgotten Heroes (Article)
• Heave Ho — The United States Merchant Marine Anthem (lyrics only)

[edit] Legislation

• HR23 Bill Merchant Marine veteran benefits
• US Merchant Marine Act of 1936
• Merchant Seamen's War Service Acts of 1945 and 1947 including 1945 and 1947 Bill of Rights

[edit] Labor unions

• American Maritime Officers Union
• International Organization of Masters, Mates, & pilots
• Marine Engineers' Beneficial Association
• The Seafarers International Union, Atlantic, Gulf, Lakes and Inland Waters District/NMU, AFL-CIO