Teochew (dialect)

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"Chaozhou Language"
Traditional Chinese: 潮州話
Simplified Chinese: 潮州话
Pronunciation in Mandarin: Cháozhōu huà ?
Pronunciation in Chaozhou: tie tsiu ue ? / Diô-jiǔ-oē ? / Dio7 Ziu1 ?
Pronunciation in Min Nan: Tiô-chiu-oē ?

The Chaozhou language, also called Teochew, Teochiu, Tiuchiu, or Diojiu, is a dialect of the Chinese spoken variant of Minnan 閩南, spoken in the Chaoshan 潮汕 region of eastern Guangdong 廣東.

Chaozhou
Spoken in: China, Malaysia, Singapore, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia, and other countries where Chaozhou migrants have settled. 
Region: in China: eastern Guangdong province including Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Chaoyang, Puning, Chao'an, Raoping, Huilai, and Shanwei.
Total speakers: About 10 million in Chaoshan. Approximately 2-5 million speakers overseas. (49 million for Min-nan as a group) 
Ranking: 21 (Min-nan as a group) [1]
Language family: Sino-Tibetan
 Chinese
  Min
   Min-nan
    Chaozhou
Language codes
ISO 639-1: zh
ISO 639-2: chi (B)  zho (T)
ISO 639-3: nan — Min-nan
Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. See IPA chart for English for an English-​based pronunciation key.

Contents

[edit] Classification

Chaozhou is a member of the Southern Min or Minnan dialect group, which in turn constitutes one of the seven major dialect groups of the Sinitic language family. Like other varieties of Chinese, people have yet agreed on whether Chaozhou should be treated as a language or a dialect. However, from a purely linguistic point of view, Chaozhou (or Minnan at large) should be a language of its own right since it is mutually unintelligible with other "dialect groups" of China. According to Glossika, Chaozhou has an overal 50.4% of mutual intelligibility with the Xiamen dialect, 44.3% with Mandarin and 43.5% with Cantonese.

Nevertheless, Chaozhou is mutually intelligible with some other Min-nan languages, notably the dialects of Zhangzhou 漳州 and Quanzhou 泉州 probably because of their proximity. Even within the Chaozhou varieties, there is substantial variation in phonology between different regions of Chaoshan and between different Chaozhou communities overseas.

The Chaozhou languages, in terms of their closeness, can be roughly divided into 3 sub-groups:

1) Shantou sub-group, including Shantou 汕頭, Chaozhou 潮州, Jieyang 揭陽, Chenghai 澄海, Nanao 南澳, Raoping 饒平 and Jiexi 揭西,

2) Chaopu sub-group, including Chaoyang 潮陽, Puning 普寧, Huilai 惠來, and

3) Luhai (陸海) sub-group, including Shanwei 汕尾, Lufeng 陸豐 and Haifeng 海豐

[edit] History and geography

Modern Chaozhou evolved from the more archaic Min-Nan . Between the 9th and the 15th century, a group of Min people migrated south from Fujian to the coastal region of eastern Guangdong 廣東 known as Chaoshan 潮汕. This migration was most likely due in part to over-population in Fujian 福建.

Due to geographical isolation from Fujian, Chaozhou evolved into a separate dialect.

As seen from above, the Chaoshan region where Chaozhou is spoken includes the cities of Chaozhou, Shantou, which are jointly the source of the name, as well as Jieyang, Chaoyang, Puning, Chao'an 潮安, Raoping, Huilai, Chenghai, Nanao, Lufeng, Haifeng, Shanwei, Huidong 惠東 and Jiexi. Parts of the Hakka-speaking region, like Dabu 大埔 and Fengshun 豐順 are also Chaozhou-speaking.

Chaoshan was one of the major sources of Chinese emigration to Southeast Asia during the 18th–20th centuries, forming one of the larger dialect groups among the Overseas Chinese. As a result, Chaozhou is now spoken in many regions outside of Chaoshan.

In particular, the Chaozhou people settled in significant numbers in Thailand and Cambodia, where they form the largest Chinese dialect group. They constitute a significant minority in Hong Kong, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia (especially in Riau, North Sumatra, South Sumatra, and West Kalimantan, in Pontianak and Ketapang). Chaozhou speakers also live in Australia, New Zealand, North America, and Europe, a result of both direct emigration from Chaoshan to these nations and secondary emigration from Southeast Asia.

However, as the world globalises, the language is losing popularity among the native speakers. In Singapore, due to common culture and influences from the media, Singaporean Chinese youths whose native language is Chaozhou are either converting to English, Standard Mandarin or Hokkien (with which it shares a certain degree of mutual intelligibility). Chaozhou remains the native language of many Chinese people in Singapore - Chaozhou people are the second largest Chinese group in Singapore, after the Hokkien - although Mandarin is gradually supplanting Chaozhou as their mother tongue, especially among the younger generations.

[edit] Languages in contact

[edit] Putonghua

Chaozhou children are introduced to Putonghua as early as in kindergarten; however, Chaozhou remains the primary medium of instruction until the early years of primary education when Putonghua becomes the sole language of instruction at school, although students typically continue to talk one another in Chaozhou. Putonghua is widely understood, however minimally, by most younger Chaozhou speakers, but the elderly usually do not speak Putonghua since, in their times, teaching was done in the local vernacular.

[edit] Chaozhou accent in Putonghua

Native Chaozhou speakers find the neutral tone in Putonghua hardest to master. Chaozhou has lost the alveolar nasal ending [-n] and so the people often replace the sound in Putonghua with the velar nasal [-ŋ]. None of the southern Min dialects has a front rounded vowel, therefore a typical Chaozhou accent supplants the unrounded counterpart [i] for [y]. Chaozhou, like its ancient ancestor, lacks labio-dentals; people therefore substitute [h] for [f] when they speak Putonghua. Chaozhou does not have any of the retroflex consonants in the northern dialects, so they say [ts], [tsʰ], [s], and [z] instead of [tʂ], [tʂʰ], [ʂ] and [ʐ].

[edit] Hakka

Since Chao'an, Raoping and Jieyang border the Hakka-speaking region in the north, some people in these regions speak Hakka, though they can usually speak Chaozhou as well. Chaozhou people have historically had a great deal of contact with the Hakka people, but, interestingly, the Hakka language has had little, if any, influence on Chaozhou. Similarly, in Dabu and Fengshun, where the Chaozhou- and Hakka-speaking regions meet, Chaozhou is also spoken although Hakka remains the primary language there.

[edit] Cantonese

Because of influence from Hong Kong soap operas and the importance of Guangzhou in Guangdong province, many young Chaozhou people can understand quite a lot of Cantonese even if they cannot speak it.

[edit] Non-Chinese language

In the mountainous area of Fenghuang 鳳凰, a non-Sinitic language is spoken by a few hundred aboriginal She people 畲, therefore the She language. It belongs to the Hmong-Mien language family.

[edit] Phonetics and Phonology

[edit] Consonants

Chaozhou (and other southern Min languages) is one of the few Sinitic languages which have voiced obstruents (stops, fricatives and affricates); however, unlike the Wu and Xiang languages, the Chaozhou voiced stops and fricatives did not evolve from the Middle Chinese voiced obstruents, instead, they were from the Middle Chinese nasals. Therefore, the voiced stops [b] and [g] are in fact prenasalised as [mb] and [ŋg] respectively. The voiced alveolar affricate [dz] was originally a fricative sound [z] in earlier Chaozhou and still is in some Chaoshan dialects. Southern Min languages are typified by a lack of labio-dentals, as illustrated below:

Consonants of the Chaozhou dialect
  bilabial alveolar velar glottal
nasals m n ŋ  
plosives voiced b   g  
voiceless unaspirated p t k ʔ
voiceless aspirated pʰ tʰ kʰ  
fricatives   s   h
affricates voiced   dz    
voiceless unaspirated   ts    
voiceless aspirated   tsʰ    
lateral approximant   l    

[edit] Oral Vowels

[edit] Nasalised Vowels

[edit] Syllable

Syllables in Chaozhou contain an onset consonant, a medial glide, a nucleus, usually in the form of a vowel, but can also be occupied by a syllabic consonant like [ŋ], and a final consonant. All the elements of the syllable except for the nucleus are optional, which means a vowel or a syllabic consonant alone can stand as a fully-fledged syllable.

[edit] Onsets

All the consonants except for the glottal stop ʔ shown in the consonants chart above can act as the onset of a syllable; however, the onset position is not obligatorily occupied.

[edit] Rimes

[edit] Nucleus

The nucleus is the only obligatory and therefore the most important element of a syllable. It can be occupied by a vowel, a nasalised vowel or a syllabic consonant in chaozhou.

[edit] Coda

The coda position is usually fulfilled by a stop or nasal consonant (which, technically speaking, is also a stop sound because the soft palate is lowered to allow air to flow through the nasal cavity) but is nevertheless optional.

[edit] Tones

[edit] Citation Tones

Chaozhou, like other Chinese languages, is a tonal language. It has eight tones and extensive tone sandhi.

Tones:

  1. Middle level
  2. Falling
  3. Low rising
  4. Low stop
  5. High level
  6. High rising
  7. Low level
  8. High stop

Here, the tones are shown following the traditional tone class categorization above, and are correlated with the tones of Middle Chinese (shown in Han characters, last column below):

  1. |33| yin level (陰平)
  2. |52| yin rising (陰上)
  3. |12| yin departing (陰去)
  4. |1| yin entering (陰入)
  5. |55| yang level (陽平)
  6. |35| yang rising (陽上)
  7. |11| yang departing (陽去)
  8. |5| yang entering (陽入)

The numbers given in | | are tone contours, where 1 is the lowest and 5 is highest.

[edit] Tone Sandhi

  1. -> 1
  2. -> 6
  3. -> 2
  4. -> 8
  5. -> 7
  6. -> 7
  7. -> 7
  8. -> 4

[edit] Intonation

[edit] Grammar

The grammar of Chaozhou is similar to southern Chinese dialects, especially with Hakka and Cantonese. The sequence 'subject verb object' is typical, like Mandarin, although 'subject object verb' is also possible using particles.

[edit] Morphology

[edit] Pronouns

[edit] Personal Pronouns

The personal pronouns in Chaozhou, like in other Sinitic languages, do not show case marking, therefore 我 [ua] means both I and me and 伊人 [i naŋ] means they and them. The southern Min dialects, like some northern dialects, have the distinction between an inclusive and exclusive we, meaning that when the addressee is being included, the inclusive pronoun 俺 [naŋ] would be used, otherwise 阮 [ŋ]. None of the other southern dialects like Cantonese or Hakka has this distinction.

Personal Pronouns in Chaozhou
  Singular Plural
1st person 我 ua2 I / me Inclusive 俺 naŋ2 we / us
Exclusive 阮 ŋ2 we / us
2nd person 汝 lɤ2 you 恁 niŋ2 you (all)
3rd person 伊 i1 he/she/it/him/her 伊人 i1 naŋ5 they/them

[edit] Possessive Pronouns

The Chaozhou language does not distinguish the possessive pronouns from the possessive adjectives. As a general rule, the possessive pronouns or adjectives are formed by adding the genitive or possessive marker 個 [kai7] to their respective personal pronouns, as summarised below:

Possessive Pronouns in Chaozhou
  Singular Plural
1st person 我個 ua2 kai7 my / mine Inclusive 俺個 naŋ2 kai7 our / ours
Exclusive 阮個 ŋ2 kai7 ours / ours
2nd person 汝個 lɤ2 kai7 your / yours 恁個 niŋ2 kai7 your / yours
3rd person 伊個 i1 kai7 his / his; her / hers; its / its 伊人個 i1 naŋ5 kai7 their / theirs

本書是我個 [puŋ2 tsɤ1 si6 ua2 kai7] The book is mine.

However, there are instances in which 個 [kai7] can be dropped, such as when followed by a measure word, as in:

我條裙 [ua2 tiou5 kuŋ5] my skirt

[edit] Demonstrative Pronouns

Chaozhou has the typical two-way distinction between the demonstratives, namely the proximals and the distals, as summarised in the following chart:

The Chaozhou Demonstratives
  Proximal Distal
General Singular 只個 [tsi2 kai7] this 許個 [hɤ2 kai7] that
Plural 只撮 [tsi2 tsʰoʔ4] these 許撮 [hɤ2 tsʰoʔ4] those
Spatial 只塊 [tsi2 ko3] here 許塊 [hɤ2 ko3] there
只內 [tsi2 lai6] inside 許內 [hɤ2 lai6] inside
只口 [tsi2 kʰao7] outside 許口 [hɤ2 kʰao7] outside
Temporal 只陣 / 當 [tsi2 tsuŋ5 / tɤŋ3] now; recently 許陣 / 當 [hɤ2 tsuŋ5 / tɤŋ3] then
Adverbial 這生 [tse2 sẽ1] like this 向生 [hia2 sẽ1] like that
Degree 醬 [tsĩẽ3] this 向 [hĩẽ3] that
Type 者個 [tsia2 kai7] this kind 向個 [hia2 kai7] that kind

[edit] Interrogative Pronouns
The Chaozhou Interrogative Pronouns
who / whom (底)珍 [ti tieŋ]
底人 [ti naŋ]
what 乜個 [miʔ kai]
底個 [ti kai]
what (kind of) + noun 乜 + N [miʔ]
which 底 + NUM + CL + (N) [ti]
where 底塊 [ti ko]
when 珍時 [tieŋ si]
how manner 做呢 [tso ni]
state 在些(樣) [tsai sẽ ĩẽ]
乜些樣 [miʔ sẽ ĩẽ]
什乜樣 [si miʔ ĩẽ]
how many 幾 + CL + N [kui]
若多 + (CL) + (N) [dzieʔ tsoi]
how much 若多 [dzieʔ tsoi]
why 做呢 [tso ni]

[edit] Numerals

The cardinal number system works in pretty much the same way as the Mandarin one.

Chaozhou Number System
Pronunciation Financial Normal Value Notes
liŋ5 零 〇 0 〇 is an informal way to represent zero, but 零 is more commonly used, especially in schools.
also 空 [kang3]
tsek8 壹 一 1 also 蜀 [tsek8] (original character)
also 弌 (obsolete)
also [ik4] as the last digit of a 2-or-more-digit number e.g. 二十一 [dzi6 tsap8 ik4]
or days of a month e.g. 一號 [ik4 ho7]
or as an ordinal number e.g. 第一 [tõĩ6 ik4]
also 么(T) or 幺(S) [iou1] when used in phone numbers etc.
no6 兩(T) or
两(S)		 二 2 also 弍 (obsolete)
also 貳(T) or 贰(S)
also [dzi6] as the last digit of a 2-or-more-digit number e.g. 三十二 [sã1 tsap8 dzi6]
or days of a month e.g. 二號 [dzi6 ho7]
or as an ordinal number e.g. 第二 [tõĩ6 dzi6].
sã1 叄(T) or
叁(S)		 三 3 also 弎 (obsolete)
also 參(T) or 参(S) [sã1].
si3 肆 四 4  
ŋou6 伍 五 5  
lak8 陸 六 6  
tsʰik4 柒 七 7  
poiʔ4 捌 八 8  
kao2 玖 九 9  
tsap8 拾 十 10 Although some people use 什, It is not acceptable because it can be written over into 伍.

Note: (T): Traditional characters; (S): Simplified characters.

Ordinal numbers are formed by adding 第 [tõĩ6] in front of a cardinal number.

[edit] Classifiers

[edit] Syntax

[edit] The Noun Phrase

[edit] Reduplication

[edit] Nominalisation

[edit] Modification of the NP

[edit] The Verb Phrase

[edit] Auxiliary Verbs

[edit] Tense

[edit] Aspect

[edit] Transitivity

[edit] Voice

In Chaozhou passive construction, the agent phrase by somebody always has to be present, and is introduced by either 乞 [kʰoiʔ4] § or 分 [puŋ1], even though it is in fact a zero or indefinite agent as in:

伊分人刣掉

[i1 puŋ1 naŋ5 tʰai5 tiau7]

s/he was killed (by someone)

§ some speakers use [kʰɤʔ] or [kʰiɤʔ] instead

Remember that while in Putonghua we can have the agent introducer 被 bèi or 給 gěi alone without the agent itself, it is not grammatical to say

* 個杯分敲掉

[kai5 pue1 puŋ1 kʰa1 tiau7]

the cup was broken.

(cf. Putonghua: 杯子給打破了 bēizi gěi dǎ pò le)

Instead, we have to say:

個杯分人敲掉

[kai5 pue1 puŋ1 naŋ5 kʰa1 tiau7]

Even though this 人 [naŋ5] is unknown.

Note also that the agent phrase 分人 [puŋ1 naŋ5] always comes immediately after the subject, not at the end of the sentence or between the auxiliary and the past participle like in some European languages (e.g. German, Dutch)

[edit] Modality

[edit] Sentence Final Particles

[edit] Adverbs

[edit] Coverbs

[edit] Negation

[edit] Interrogation

[edit] Comparison

[edit] The comparative construction with two or more nouns

Chaozhou uses the construction "X ADJ 過 [kue3] Y", which is believed to have evolved from the Ancient Chinese "X ADJ 于 (yú) Y" structure, to express the idea of comparision:

伊雅過你

[i1 ŋia2 kue3 lɤ2]

She is more beautiful than you.

Cantonese uses the same construction:

cf. 佢靚過你 [kʰœy5 leŋ3 kʷɔ3 nei5]

However, due to influences from Mandarin Chinese, the Mandarin structure "X 比 Y ADJ" has also gained popularity over the years. Therefore, the same sentence can be re-structured and becomes:

伊比汝雅。

[i1 pi2 lɤ2 ŋia2]

cf. Mandarin 她比你漂亮 (tā bǐ nǐ piào liang)

[edit] The comparative construction with only one noun

Note: the 過- or 比-construction must involve two or more nouns to be compared; an ill-formed sentence will be yielded when only one is being mentioned:

* 伊雅過 (?)

This is different from English since the second noun being compared can be left out:

cf. Tatyana is more beautiful (than Lisa).

In this case, the 夭-construction has to be used instead:

伊夭雅

[i1 iou6 ŋia2]

She is more beautiful.

The same holds true for Mandarin and Cantonese in that another structure needs to be used when only one of the nouns being compared is mentioned. Note also that Chaozhou and Mandarin both use a pre-modifier (before the adjective) while Cantonese uses a post-modifier (after the adjective).

cf. Mandarin 她比較漂亮 (tā bǐ jiào piào liang) & Cantonese 佢靚啲 [kʰœy5 leŋ3 ti1]

There are two words which are intrinsically comparative in meaning, i.e. 贏 [ĩã5] "better" and 輸 [su1] "worse". They can be used alone or in conjunction with the 過-structure:

只領裙輸(過)許領

[tsi2 nĩã2 kuŋ5 su1 kue3 hɤ2 nĩã2]

This skirt is not as good as that one.

我內個電腦贏伊個好多

[ua2 lai6 kai7 tieŋ6 nao2 ĩã5 i1 kai7 hoʔ2 tsoi7]

My computer (at home) is far better than his.

Note the use of the adverbial 好多 [hoʔ2 tsoi7] at the end of the sentence to express a higher degree.

[edit] The equal construction

In Chaozhou, the idea of equality is expressed with the word 平 [pẽ5] or 平樣 [pẽ5 ĩẽ7]:

只本書佮許本平重。

[tsi2 puŋ2 tsɤ1 kaʔ4 hɤ2 puŋ2 pẽ5 taŋ6]

This book is as heavy as that one.

伊兩人平平樣。

[i1 no6 naŋ5 pẽ5 pẽ5 ĩẽ7]

They are the same. (They look the same./They're as good as each other./They're as bad as each other.)

[edit] The superlative construction

To express the superlative, Chaozhou uses the adverb 上 [siaŋ5] or 上頂 [siaŋ5 teŋ2]. However, it should be noted that 上頂 is usually used with a complimentary connotation.

只間物上頂好食。

[tsi2 kõĩ1 mueʔ8 siaŋ5 teŋ2 ho2 tsiaʔ8]

This (restaurant) is (absolutely) the most delicious.

伊人對我上好。

[i1 naŋ5 tui3 ua2 siaŋ5 ho2]

They treat me best.

[edit] Vocabulary

The vocabulary of Chaozhou shares a lot of similarities with Cantonese owing to their continuous contact with each other. Like Cantonese, Chaozhou has a great deal of monosyllabic words, which to a certain extent reflects the age of the Chaozhou language since monosyllabic words were prevalent in Ancient Chinese. However, ever since the standardisation of Modern Chinese, Chaozhou has absorbed a lot of Putonghua vocabulary, which is predominantly polysyllabic. In addition, due to the migration to Southeast Asia, Chaozhou has also borrowed extensively from Malay.

[edit] Archaic vocabulary

Chaozhou and other Min Nan dialects such as Taiwanese preserve a good deal of Ancient Chinese vocabulary. Examples include words such as 目 [mak] eye (cf. Putonghua: 眼睛 yǎnjīng; Taiwanese: 目 ba̍k), 灱 [ta] dry (cf. Putonghua: 乾 gān; Taiwanese: 焦 ta), and 囥 [kʰɤŋ] hide (cf. Putonghua: 藏 cáng; Taiwanese: 囥 khǹg).

[edit] Foreign borrowings

Chaozhou has absorbed a number of words from both Malay and English.

Malay:

  • 嗎淡 [matã] mata-mata police
  • 巴薩 [pasak] pasak market
  • 咕哩 [kuli] kuli coolies
  • mana wu chia ? - where got car?

English:

  • 目頭 [mak tʰau] mark
  • 基羅 [ki lo] kilogramme
  • 巴仙 [pa sieŋ] percent

[edit] Onomatopoeia

[edit] Script and orthographies

The majority of Chaozhou words can be written with the Chinese characters; however, a small amount of the native vocabulary does not have a standard character yet, partly because the Chaozhou vocabulary is usually more archaic and thus not commonly used in the modern standard Chinese language and partly because the studies on dialectal writing in China have not flourished like other areas in traditional Chinese philology, and of course there is also the possibility of some locally invented words which actually do not have a Chinese character.

[edit] Romanisation

The Chaozhou language has been romanised by the Guangdong provincial government to aid linguistic studies and the publication of dictionaries, although the Taiwanese Pe̍h-oē-jī could also be used because the Christian missionaries invented it in a way that is also suitable for the transcription of other Min-nan dialects.

A modified version of the Guangdong romanization system called Peng'im is also used in an online Chaozhou community.

[edit] Initials

Initial consonants of Chaozhou, are represented in the Guangdong Peng'im system as: B, BH, C, D, G, GH, H, K, L, M, N, NG, P, R, S, T, and Z.

Examples:

  • B - bag (北 north)
  • Bh- bhê (马 horse)
  • C - cên (青 green)
  • C - cǔi (嘴 mouth)
  • C - cêng (槍 gun)
  • D - dio (潮 tide)
  • G - gio (桥 bridge)
  • GH- gho (鹅 goose)
  • H - hung (云 cloud)
  • K - ke (走 to go)
  • L - lag (六 six)
  • M - mêng (明 bright)
  • N - nang (人 person)
  • NG - ngou (五 five)
  • P - peng (平 peace)
  • R - riêg/ruah (热 hot)
  • S - sên (生 to be born)
  • T - tin (天 heaven)
  • Z - ziu (州 region/state)

[edit] Rimes

[edit] Vowels

Vowels and vowel combinations in the Chaozhou dialect include: A, E, Ê, I, O, U, AI, AO, IA, IO, IU, OI, OU, UA, UAI, UE, and UI.

Examples:

  • A - ma (妈 mother)
  • E - de (箸 chopsticks)
  • Ê - sên (生 to be born)
  • I - bhi (味 smell/taste)
  • O - to (桃 peach)
  • U - ghu (牛 cow)

Many words in Chaozhou are nasalized. This is represented by the letter "n" in the Guangdong Pengim system.

Example (nasalized):

  • suan (山 mountain)
  • cên (青 green)

[edit] Ending

Ending consonants in Chaozhou include M and NG as well as the stops discussed below.

Examples:

  • M - iam (盐 salt)
  • NG - bhuang (万 ten thousand)

Chaozhou retains many consonant stops lost in Mandarin. These stops include a labial stop: "b"; velar stop: "g"; and glottal stop: "h".

Examples:

  • B - zab (十 ten)
  • G - hog (福 happiness)
  • H - tih (铁 iron)

[edit] External links

[edit] References

  • Beijing da xue Zhongguo yu yan wen xue xi yu yan xue jiao yan shi. (2003). Han yu fang yin zi hui. (Chinese dialectal vocabulary) Beijing, China : Yu wen chu ban she (北京大學中國語言文學系語言學教研室, 2003. 漢語方音字匯. 北京: 語文出版社) ISBN 7-80184-034-8
  • Cai Junming. (1991). Putonghua dui zhao Chaozhou fang yan ci hui. (Chaozhou dialectal vocabulary, contrasted with Mandarin) Hong Kong, China: Wu Duotai Zhongguo yu wen yan jiu zhong xin (蔡俊明, 1991. 普通話對照潮州方言詞匯. 香港: 香港中文大學吳多泰中國語文研究中心) ISBN 962-7330-02-7
  • Chappell, Hilary (ed.) (2001). Sinitic grammar : synchronic and diachronic perspectives. Oxford; New York: OUP ISBN 0-19-829977-X
  • Chen, Matthew Y. (2000). Tone Sandhi : patterns across Chinese dialects. Cambridge, England: CUP ISBN 0-521-65272-3
  • DeFrancis, John. (1984). The Chinese language: fact and fantasy. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press ISBN 0-8248-1068-6
  • Li, Xin Kui. (1994). Guangdong di fang yan. (Dialects of Guangdong) Guangzhou, China: Guangdong ren min chu ban she (李新魁, 1994. 廣東的方言. 廣州: 廣東 人民出版社) ISBN 7-218-00960-3
  • Li, Yongming. (1959). Chaozhou fang yan. (Chaozhou dialect) Beijing, China : Zhonghua. (李永明, 1959. 潮州方言. 北京: 中華)
  • Lin, Lun Lun. (1997). Xin bian Chaozhou yin zi dian. (New Chaozhou pronunciation dictionary) Shantou, China : Shantou da xue chu ban she. (林倫倫, 1997. 新編潮州音字典. 汕頭: 汕頭大學出版社) ISBN 7-81036-189-9
  • Ramsey, S. Robert (1986). Languages of China. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press ISBN 0-691-06694-9

[edit] See also


[edit] Chinese: spoken varieties  
Traditional categories:

Mandarin | Wu | Cantonese | Min | Hakka | Xiang | Gan
Other:

Jin | Hui | Ping
Unclassified:

Danzhouhua | Shaozhou Tuhua
Note: The above is only one classification scheme among many.
The categories in italics are not universally acknowledged to be independent categories.
Subcategories of Mandarin: Northeastern | Beijing | Ji-Lu | Jiao-Liao | Zhongyuan | Lan-Yin | Southwestern | Jianghuai | Dungan
Subcategories of Min: Min Bei | Min Nan
Min Dong | Min Zhong | Hainanese | Puxian | | Shaojiang
Comprehensive list of Chinese dialects
Official spoken varieties: Standard Mandarin | Standard Cantonese
Historical phonology: Old Chinese | Middle Chinese | Proto-Min | Proto-Mandarin | Haner
Chinese: written varieties
Official written varieties: Classical Chinese | Vernacular Chinese
Other varieties: Written Vernacular Cantonese
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