Tanks in World War I
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The tank was developed by the British in World War I as a solution to the stalemate trench warfare had brought to the western front. The first prototype of the Mark I tank was tested for the British Army on September 6, 1915. Although initially termed "land ships" by The Admiralty, to preserve secrecy the initial vehicles were referred to as "water-carriers" which was then shortened to "tanks".
While the British took the lead in tank development, the French were not far behind and fielded their first tanks in 1917. The Germans on the other hand were slower with tank development, concentrating on anti-tank weapons rather than tanks.
Initial results with tanks were mixed, with problems in reliability causing considerable attrition rates when getting the tanks into combat and on the move. The heavily shelled terrain was hard going, and only very mobile tanks such as the Mark I and FTs performed reasonably. The Mark I's rhomboid shape meant it could navigate larger obstacles, especially long trenches, better than many modern armoured fighting vehicles.
The tank would eventually make the trench warfare of World War I obsolete, and the thousands of tanks fielded by French and British forces made a significant contribution to the war.
Along with the tank, the first self-propelled gun, the first armoured personnel carrier, and the first fully-tracked armoured personnel carrier were also used in WWI (the Mark V tank was built with space inside for a small squad of infantry).
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[edit] Conceptual roots of the tank
- See also: History of the tank
The conceptual roots of the tank arguably go back to ancient times, with strange siege engines and the like. Leonardo da Vinci's famous 'tank' design marked the first attempt at a mechanical solution. With the coming of the Industrial Revolution and the demonstrable power of Steam, it was not too long before James Cowan presented his proposal for a Steam Powered Land Ram in 1855, towards the end of the Crimean War. Looking like a helmet on 'footed' Boydell wheels, early forerunners of the Pedrail wheel and caterpillar track, it was essentially an armoured steam tractor equipped with cannon and (shades of Boudicca!) rotating scythes sprouting from the sides! Lord Palmerston is said to have dismissed it as 'barbaric', but in truth, it was mechanically impracticable.
In 1903 H. G. Wells wrote a short story called The Land Ironclads, in which the eponymous vehicles overcome a well-entrenched defender by surprise and speed. These proto-tanks, which ran on Pedrail wheels (large wheels with hinged 'feet' that spread their load) rather than caterpillar tracks, did not carry large guns, but instead had mechanically operated and sighted rifles, operated by men sitting in rooms that formed camera obscura. Wells's vision of the tank is remarkable, but just as perceptive were his remarks on the dehumanising effects of mechanised warfare.
From 1904 to 1909, David Roberts, the brilliant engineer managing director of Hornsby & Sons of Grantham, built a series of tractors using his patented 'chain-track' which were put through their paces by the British Army, a (small) section of which wanted to evaluate artillery tractors. At one point, in 1908, a perceptive officer remarked to Roberts that he should design a new machine with armour, capable of carrying its own gun. But, disheartened by years of ultimately fruitless tinkering for the Army, Roberts failed to take up the idea.
An Austrian engineer, Guenther Burstyn, inspired by Holt tractors, designed a tracked armoured vehicle in 1911 carrying a light gun in a rotating turret; equipped also with hinged 'arms', two in front and two at the rear, carrying wheels on the ends to assist with obstacles and trenches, it was a very forward-looking design, if rather small. The Austrian government said it would be interested in evaluating it if Burstyn could secure commercial backing to produce a prototype. Lacking the requisite contacts, he let it drop. An approach to the German government was similarly fruitless.
In 1912, A South Australian named Lancelot De Mole submitted a proposal, to the British War Office, for a "chain-rail vehicle which could be easily steered and carry heavy loads over rough ground and trenches". The British later developed a quite similar tank themselves, initially under Royal Navy auspices in the form of the mercurial Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty. The "Big Willie", or "Mother", design used tracks especially designed by William Tritton and Walter Wilson for "Little Willie" and a "climbing face" like the De Mole proposal (in fact, the Tritton/Wilson track was as much the key to the success of the British tanks as any other feature; Holt, and all other commercial, tracks were found to be too fragile). De Mole made several more proposals to the British War Office after 1912, in 1914 and 1916, with a culminating proposal in late 1917, accompanied by a huge one-eighth scale model, yet all fell on substantially deaf ears. Inquiries from the government of Australia, after the war, yielded polite responses that Mr De Mole’s ideas had unfortunately been too advanced for the time to be properly recognised at their just value. The Commission on Awards to Inventors in 1919, which adjudicated all the competing claims to the development of the tank, recognised the brilliance of De Mole's design, even considering that it was superior to the machines actually developed, but due to its narrow remit, could only make a payment of £987 to De Mole to cover his expenses. As an aside, De Mole noted in 1919 that he was urged by friends before the War to approach the Germans with his design, but declined to do so for patriotic reasons.
Before World War I, motorised vehicles were still relatively uncommon, and their use on the battlefield was initially limited, especially of heavier vehicles. Armoured cars soon became more commonplace with most belligerents, especially in more open terrain. In fact on 23 August 1914 the French Colonel Estienne, later a major proponent of tanks, declared: Messieurs, la victoire appartiendra dans cette guerre à celui des deux belligérants qui parviendra le premier à placer un canon de 75 sur une voiture capable de se mouvoir en tout terrain ("Gentlemen, victory in this war will belong to that one of the two belligerents that will be the first to succeed in mounting a 75 mm gun on a vehicle capable of moving in all type of terrain").
Armoured cars did indeed prove useful in open land such as in deserts, but were not very good at crossing obstacles (e.g. trenches, barriers) or in more challenging terrain. The other issue was that it was very hard to add much protection or armament.
The main limitation was the wheels, which gave a high ground pressure for the vehicle's weight. This could be solved by adding more wheels, but unless they also were driven, the effect was to reduce traction on the powered wheels. Driving extra wheels meant more drive train weight; in turn requiring a larger and heavier engine to maintain performance. Even worse, none of this extra weight was put into an improvement of armour or armament carried, and the vehicles were still incapable of crossing very rough terrain.
The invention of modern caterpillar tracks by the Holt company offered a new solution to the problem. The tracks spread the weight of the vehicles over a much greater area, which was all used for traction to move the vehicle. The limitation on armour and firepower was no longer ground pressure but the power and weight of the power-plant.
The remaining issue was how to utilise and configure a vehicle, which would be figured out first by the Landship Committee and Inventions Committee. A variety of other concepts would be combined, such as special steel for armour, a climbing face for the tracks, and weapons mounted in rotating turrets.
[edit] The Landships Committee
The British led the way in the development of tanks. Winston Churchill, as First Lord of the Admiralty, created a Landships Committee in February 1915, initially to investigate designs for a massive troop transporter. As a truer picture of front-line conditions was developed the aims of the investigation changed. Together with the older Inventions Committee a requirement was formulated for an armoured vehicle capable of 4 mph (6 km/h), climbing a 5 feet (1.5 m) high parapet, crossing an 8 feet (2.4 m) wide gap, and armed with machine guns and a light artillery piece. A similar proposal was working its way through the Army GHQ in France and in June the Landship Committee was made a joint service venture between the War Office and the Admiralty (the Naval involvement was through the RNAS Armoured Car Division).
The early work on protecting heavy gun tractors appeared promising. Early 'big wheel' designs soon proved deficient but adapting the existing Holt Company caterpillar designs into a fighting machine proved difficult. While armour and weapon systems were easy to acquire, existing caterpillar and suspension units were too weak and existing engines were notably underpowered for the armoured behemoths that the designers had in mind. Despite these problems a contract was placed with Foster in late July to produce a proof-of-concept vehicle. Construction work began three weeks later.
Although landship was a natural term coming from an Admiralty committee, it was considered too descriptive and could give away British intentions. The committee therefore looked for an appropriate code term for the vehicles. Water Container was considered but rejected because the committee would inevitably be known as the WC Committee. (WC meaning water closet was a common British term for a toilet). The term tank, as in water tank, was finally accepted as its official designation. Hence factory workers assembling the vehicles were told they were producing "mobile water tanks" for desert warfare. From then on, the term "tank" was established among British and also German soldiers. While in German Tank specifically refers to the World War I type (as opposed to modern Panzer), in English, Russian and other languages the name even for contemporary armoured vehicles is still based on the word tank.
Fosters of Lincoln produced the 14 ton "Little Willie". Powered by a 105 hp (78 kW) Daimler engine, the ten-foot high armoured box was initially fitted with a low Bullock caterpillar. A rotating top turret was planned with a 57 mm gun but abandoned due to weight problems, leaving the final vehicle unarmed and little more than a test-bed for the difficult track system. Difficulties with commercial tracks led to Tritton designing a completely new track system different from, and vastly more robust than, any other system then in use. The next design shared few common features with "Little Willie". In order to achieve the demanded gap clearance a rhomboidal shape was chosen—stretching the form to improve the track footprint and keep a low centre of gravity. The rotating turret design was dropped in favour of sponsons on the sides of the hull fitted with Naval 57 mm guns. A final specification was agreed on in late September for trials in early 1916, and the 30 ton "Big Willie" (also called "Mother") together with "Little Willie" underwent trials at Hatfield Park on 29 January and 2 February. Attendees at the second trial included Lord Kitchener, Lloyd George, Reginald McKenna and other political luminaries. On 12 February an initial order for 100 "Big Willie" type vehicles was made.
Legend has it that after completion the tanks were shipped to France in large wooden crates. For secrecy and not to arouse any curiosity the crates and the tanks themselves were then each labelled with a destination in Russian for Petrograd. In fact the tanks were never shipped in crates: the inscription in cyrillic Russian was applied on the hull for their transport from the factory to the first training centre at Thetford.[1]
The first fifty had been delivered to France on 30 August. They were 'male' or 'female', depending upon whether their armament was the 57 mm guns or multiple smaller Hotchkiss or Vickers machine guns. The crew was eight, four of whom were needed to handle the steering and drive gears. The tanks were capable of 4 mph (6 km/h), matching the speed of marching infantry with whom they were to be integrated to aid in the destruction of enemy machine guns.
After the war, The Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors decided that the inventors of the Tank were Sir William Tritton, managing director of Fosters and Major Walter Gordon Wilson.
[edit] Trial by fire
The first use of tanks on the battlefield was the use of 49 British Mk.I tanks at the Battle of the Somme (1916) on September 15, 1916, with mixed, but still impressive results as many broke down but nearly a third succeeded in breaking through. Of the forty-nine tanks shipped to the Somme, only thirty-two were able to begin the first attack in which they were used, and nine made it across "no man's land" to the German lines. The tanks had been rushed into combat before the design was mature enough, and the number was small, but their use gave important feedback on how to design newer tanks, the soundness of the concept, and their potential to effect the course of the war. On the other hand, the French Army was critical of the British employment of small numbers of tanks at this battle. They felt the British had sacrificed the secrecy of the weapon while employing it in numbers too small to be decisive.
The Mark I's were capable of performing on the real battlefield of WWI, one of the most difficult battlefield terrains ever. They did have reliability problems, but when they were working they could cross trenches or craters of 9 feet (2.7 m) and drive right through barbed wire. It was still common for them to get stuck, especially in larger bomb craters, but overall the rhomboid shape allowed for extreme terrain mobility.
Most WWI tanks could travel only at about a walking pace at best. Their steel armour could stop small arms fire and fragments from high-explosive artillery shells. However they were vulnerable to a direct hit from artillery and mortar shells. Infantry weapons such as anti-tank rifles and grenades were quickly developed.
Engine power was a primary limitation on the tanks; the roughly one hundred horsepower engines gave a power-to-weight ratio of 3.3 hp/ton (2.5 kW/ton). By the end of the 20th century, power-to-weight ratios exceeded 20 hp/ton (15 kW/ton).
Many feel that because the British Commander Field Marshal Douglas Haig was himself a horse cavalryman, his command failed to appreciate the value of tanks. In fact, horse cavalry doctrine in World War I was to "follow up a breakthrough with harassing attacks in the rear", but there were no breakthroughs on the Western Front until the tanks came along. Despite these supposed views of Haig, he made an order for 1,000 tanks shortly after the failure at the Somme and always remained firmly in favour of further production.
[edit] French developments
The French at the same time developed their own tracked AFVs, though their first designs were poorly designed with respect to the need to cross trenches and did not take the sponson-mounting route of the British tanks. The first, the Char Schneider CA, had very poor mobility due to a short track length combined with a hull that overhung front and rear. It was unreliable as well; a maximum of only about 100 of the 400 built were ever operational at the same time. The Char St Chamond, a parallel development, mounted much more impressive weaponry, but repeated many of the Schneider CA's faults and retained the large overhanging body. It would be Renault's excellent small tank design the FT-17 (which won out over a Peugeot model), incorporating a proper climbing face for the tracks, that was the first to incorporate a top-mounted turret with a full rotation. In fact the FT was in many respects the first truly 'modern' tank having a layout that has been followed by almost all designs ever since: driver at the front; main armament in a fully-rotating turret; engine at the rear. The super-heavy Char 2C, though too late for service in WWI, would be the first tank with a three-man turret and the heaviest to enter service until late in WWII.
The French used tanks for the first time on 16 April 1917, during the Nivelle offensive. It was a major failure; the Schneiders and chars St Chamond (which saw their first action on the 5 May) didn't have the ability to cross trenches as the British could and were torn to pieces by concentrated German artillery fire.
[edit] Battle of Cambrai
The first really successful use of tanks came in the Battle of Cambrai in 1917. British Colonel J.F.C. Fuller, chief of staff of the Tank Corps, planned the battle. The tanks made an unprecedented breakthrough but, as ever on the Western front, the opportunity was not exploited. Ironically, it was the soon-to-be-supplanted horse cavalry that had been assigned the task of following up the motorised tank attack.
Tanks became more effective as the lesson of the early tanks was absorbed. The British produced the Mark IV in 1917. Similar to the early Marks in appearance, its construction was considered to produce a more reliable machine, the long-barrelled naval guns were shortened (the barrels of the earlier, longer, guns, being prone to digging in the mud when negotiating obstacles) and armour was increased just enough to defeat the standard German armour-piercing bullet.
The continued need for four men to drive the tank was solved with the Mark V in 1918. Also in 1918 the French produced the Renault FT-17, the result of a co-operation between Estienne and Louis Renault. As mentioned before, it had the innovative turret position, and was operated by two men. At just 8 tons it was half the weight of the Medium A Whippet but the version with the cannon had more firepower. It was conceived for mass production, and the FT would become the most produced tank of WWI by a wide margin with over 4,500 made, being also used and produced by the Americans.
In July 1918, the French used 480 tanks (mostly FTs) at Soissons, and there were even larger assaults planned for 1919. The Entente had hoped to commit over 30,000 tanks to battle in that year.
[edit] Villers-Bretonneux: tank vs. tank
The German General Staff did not have enthusiasm for the tank, but allowed the development of anti-tank weapons. Regardless, development of a German tank was underway. The only project to be produced and fielded was the A7V, although only twenty A7Vs were built. The majority of the roughly hundred or so tanks fielded by Germany were captured British and French vehicles. A7Vs were captured by the Allies, but they were not used, and most ended up being scrapped.
The first tank-versus-tank battles took place 24 April 1918. It was an unexpected engagement between three German A7Vs and three British Mk. IVs at Villers-Bretonneux.
Fuller's Plan 1919 involving massive use of tanks for an offensive, was never used because the blockade of Germany and the entry of the US brought an end to the war. The plan itself would become the inspiration for German blitzkrieg tactics in World War II. As a military planner and later journalist, Fuller continued to develop his doctrine of using tanks supported by infantry to break through enemy lines to attack communications in the rear.
Finally, in a preview of later developments, the British developed the Whippet. This tank was specifically designed to exploit breaches in the enemy front. The Whippet was faster than most other tanks, although it carried only machinegun armament. Postwar tank designs would reflect this trend towards greater tactical mobility.
[edit] See also
[edit] Media
- Tanks of WWI (file info) — Watch in browser
- Video clip of WWI tanks helping the Allies with an advance in Langres, France (1918).
- Problems seeing the videos? See media help.
