Taboo

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This article is about cultural prohibitions in general, for other uses, see Taboo (disambiguation).
For the Polynesian religious concept, see Tapu.

A taboo is a strong social prohibition (or ban) against words, objects, actions, discussions, or people that are considered undesirable or offensive by a group, culture, or society. Breaking the taboo is usually considered objectionable or abhorrent. Some taboo activities or customs are prohibited under law and transgressions may lead to severe penalties. Other taboos result in embarrassment, shame and rudeness.

Contents

[edit] Etymology

Common etymology[citation needed] traces the word back to the Tongan tabu (or tapu)[1] meaning "under prohibition". This view traces the word back to the year 1777 and an English explorer, Captain James Cook, visiting a place he named "the Friendly Islands" (now Tonga). Describing the Tongans, he wrote:

"Not one of them would sit down, or eat a bit of any thing.... On expressing my surprise at this, they were all taboo, as they said; which word has a very comprehensive meaning; but, in general, signifies that a thing is forbidden.... When any thing is forbidden to be eat, or made use of, they say, that it is taboo."

Other sources indicate the word can also be derived from the Fijian word tabu.[2]

[edit] Examples

Taboos can include dietary restrictions (halal and kosher diets, religious vegetarianism, and the prohibition of cannibalism), restrictions on sexual activities, gender roles and relationships (sex outside of marriage, adultery, intermarriage, miscegenation, homosexuality, incest, animal-human sex, pedophilia, necrophilia and paraphilias), restrictions of bodily functions (burping, flatulence, defecation, urination, masturbation, nosepicking, and spitting), restrictions on state of genitalia such as circumcision or sex reassignment, exposure of body parts, pornography and nudity esp. in the US), illicit drugs, substance abuse, alcoholism, bodily pain, medical surgery, satanism or devil worship, restrictions on the use of offensive language also known as obscenity and vulgarity, and other topics/subjects that provoke emotional angst or may disturb people to discomfort. Some taboos originated by acts of authority, be it legal, social and religious, over a period of time.[citation needed]

The list of "common courtesy" taboos more having to do with western etiquette and respecting others, include topics on sexuality, religion, death, disease, natural disasters, divorce, politics, crime, justice, money issues, gender, race/ethnicity in order to avoid discriminatory and prejudiced attitudes, human rights, oppression, animal abuse, child abuse, domestic violence, abortion, miscarriage, pregnancy and childbirth, personal issues regarding one's age, income, height, weight and appearance, and a variety of religious sins are taboo, depending of their faith. Environmentalism, other ecology-related issues and scientific controversies (human evolution, eugenics, in-vitro fertilization, human cloning and stem cell research) are often treated like a taboo by their controversial and divisive nature in the realm of politics, morality and religious belief. When not in "polite society", discussions on taboos are allowed in humorous expression, such as comedy and satire.


[edit] Origin

There are varying explanations for the origin of taboos. While some explanations are anthropological and explain taboos using history and cultural experiences, other explanations are psychoanalytical and explain taboos as an unconscious phenomenon passing through generations.

[edit] Sigmund Freud

German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt explains that taboos were originally nothing other than an objectified fear of a "demonic" power which was believed to lie hidden in a tabooed object.[3] Sigmund Freud believes this to be a superficial explanation having nothing to do with the true origins of taboos. He claims that many similarities between taboo-holders and obsessive neurotics point to "a psychological condition that prevails in the unconscious".[4] Freud believes this "unconsciousness" is central to understanding the history of taboos. He then reconstructs the history of taboo based on the model of obsessional prohibitions as follows:

"Taboos, we must suppose, are prohibitions of primæval antiquity which were at some time externally imposed upon a generation of primitive men; they must, that is to say, no doubt have been impressed on them violently by the previous generation. These prohibitions must have concerned activities towards which there was a strong inclination. They must then have persisted from generation to generation, perhaps merely as a result of tradition transmitted through parental and social authority."[5]

And so, "Anyone who has violated a taboo becomes taboo himself because he possesses the dangerous quality of tempting others to follow his example."[6]


[edit] The taboo on food

See also: Taboo food and drink
  • A Māori woman having eaten of some fruit, and being afterwards told that the fruit had been taken from a tabooed place, exclaimed that the spirit of the chief, whose sanctity had been thus profaned, would kill her. This was in the afternoon, and next day by twelve o'clock she was dead.[7] An observer who knows the Māori well says, "Tapu [Taboo] is an awful weapon. I have seen a strong young man die the same day he was tapued; the victims die under it as though their strength ran out as water."[8]

[edit] The taboo on the dead

Main article: Taboo on the dead

The taboo on the dead includes the taboo against touching of a corpse and those who are caring for it; the taboo against mourners of the dead; and the taboo against anything associated with the dead (e.g., the dead person's name).

[edit] Examples

[edit] The taboo on corpses

  • Among the Māori anyone who had handled a corpse or taken any part in its burial was in the highest degree unclean and was almost cut off from intercourse with his fellow-men. He could not enter any house, or come into contact with any person or thing without infecting them. He might not even touch food with his hands, which, owing to their uncleanness, had become quite useless. "Food would be set for him on the ground, and he would then sit or kneel down, and, with his hands carefully held behind his back, would gnaw at it as best he could. In some cases he would be fed by another person, who with outstretched arm contrived to do it without touching the tabooed man." The mourners of the dead were also secluded from the public. When their period of mourning was near completion, "all the dishes he had used in his seclusion were diligently smashed, and all the garments he had worn were carefully thrown away."[9]

[edit] The taboo on mourners

  • Among the Shuswap of British Columbia widows and widowers in mourning are secluded and forbidden to touch their own head or body; the cups and cooking vessels which they use may be used by no one else. [...] No hunter would come near such mourners, for their presence is unlucky. If their shadow were to fall on anyone, he would be taken ill at once. They employ thorn-bushes for bed and pillow, in order to keep away the ghost of the deceased; and thorn bushes are also laid all around their beds.[10]
  • Among the Agutainos, who inhabit Palawan, one of the Philippine Islands, a widow may not leave her hut for seven or eight days after the death; and even then she may only go out at an hour when she is not likely to meet anybody, for whoever looks upon her dies a sudden death. To prevent this fatal catastrophe, the widow knocks with a wooden peg on the trees as she goes along, thus warning people of her dangerous proximity; and the very trees on which she knocks soon die."[11]

[edit] The taboo on naming the dead

Main article: Taboo against naming the dead

The taboo on naming the dead prohibits any utterance of a dead man's name—any other words similar to it in sound. Some examples follow:

  • Among the Guaycurus of Paraguay, when a death had taken place, the chief used to change the name of every member of the tribe; and from that moment everybody remembered his new name just as if he had born it all his life.[12]
  • After a Yolngu man named Bitjingu died, the word bithiwul "no; nothing" was avoided.[13] In its place, a synonym or a loanword from another language would be used for a certain period, after which the original word could be used again; but in some cases the replacement word would continue to be used.

[edit] Origins and causes

Sigmund Freud traces back the origin of the dangerous character of widowers and widows to the danger of temptation. A man who has lost his wife must resist a desire to find a substitute for her; a widow must fight against the same wish and is moreover liable to arouse the desires of other men. Substitutive satisfactions of such a kind run counter to the sense of mourning and they would inevitably kindle the ghost's wrath.[14]

Freud explains that the fundamental reason for the existence of such taboos is the fear of the presence or of the return of the dead person's ghost. It is exactly this fear that leads to a great number of ceremonies aimed at keeping the ghost at a distance or driving him off.[15]

The Tuaregs of Sahara, for example, dread the return of the dead man's spirit so much that "[they] do all they can to avoid it by shifting their camp after a death, ceasing for ever to pronounce the name of the departed, and eschewing everything that might be regarded as an evocation or recall of his soul. Hence they do not, like the Arabs, designate individuals by adding to their personal names the names of their fathers. [...] they give to every man a name which will live and die with him."[16] In many cases the taboo remains in tact until the body of the dead has completely decayed,[17] but until then the community must disguise itself so that the ghost shall not recognize them. For example, the Nicobar Islanders try to disguise themselves by shaving their heads.[18]

Psychologist Wilhelm Wundt associates the taboo to a fear that the dead man's soul has become a demon.[19] Moreover, many cases show a hostility toward the dead and their representation as malevolent figures.[20] Edward Westermarck notes that "Death is commonly regarded as the gravest of all misfortunes; hence the dead are believed to be exceedingly dissatisfied with their fate [...] such a death naturally tends to make the soul revengeful and ill-tempered. It is envious of the living and is longing for the company of its old friend."[21]

[edit] The taboo on rulers

Main article: Taboo on rulers

[edit] Examples

  • The Nubas of East Africa believe that they would die if they entered the house of their priestly king; however they can evade the penalty of their intrusion by baring the left shoulder and getting the king to lay his hands on it.[22]
  • In West Africa, at Shark Point near Cape Padron, in Lower Guinea, lives the priestly king Kukulu, alone in a wood. He may not touch a woman or leave his house; indeed he may not even quit his chair, which he is obliged to sleep sitting, for if he lay down no wind would rise and navigation would be stopped.[23]
  • The ancient kings of Ireland were subject to a number of strange restrictions as listed in The Book of Rights. The king, for instance, may not stay in a certain town on a particular day of the week; he may not cross a river on a particular hour of the day; he may not encamp for nine days on a certain plain, and so on.[24]

[edit] The taboo on warriors

[edit] Examples

Restrictions placed on a victorious slayer are unusually frequent and as a rule severe.[25]

  • In Timor, the leader of the expedition is forbidden "to return at once to his own house. A special hut is prepared for him, in which he has to reside for two months, undergoing bodily and spiritual purification. During this time he may not go to his wife nor feed himself; the food must be put in his mouth by another person."[26]
  • In some Dyak tribes men returning from a successful expedition are obliged to keep to themselves for several days and abstain from various kinds of food; they may not touch iron nor have any intercourse with women.[27]
  • In Logea, an island in the neighborhood of New Guinea, "men who have killed or assisted in killing enemies shut themselves up for about a week in their houses. They must avoid all intercourse with their wives and friends, and they may not touch food with their hands. They may eat vegetable food only which is brought to them cooked in special pots. The intention of these restrictions in to gaurd the men against the smell of the blood of the slain; for it is believed that if they smelt the blood they would fall ill and die.
  • In the Toaripi or Motumotu tribe of south-eastern New Guinea a man who has killed another may not go near his wife, and may not touch food with his fingers. He is fed by others, and only with certain kinds of food. These observances last till the new moon."[28]

[edit] Taboo in literature

[edit] Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud provided an analysis of taboo behaviours, highlighting strong unconscious motivations driving such prohibitions. In this system, described in his collections of essays Totem and Taboo, Freud postulates a link between forbidden behaviours and the sanctification of objects to certain kinship groups. Freud also states here that the only two "universal" taboos are that of incest and patricide, which formed the eventual basis of modern society.

[edit] Taboo and art

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Many contemporary artists deal with taboo images and ideas, or known to exhibit or discuss taboo subjects and issues, including:

Movies and television shows, mostly comedies (including animated cartoons and crime dramas) that deal with taboo subjects/issues.

[edit] The taboos on current-day controversial issues

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In the late 20th century, sociologists and political critics spoke of taboos include some political controversial issues in the Western world, the countries least likely to impose regulations on freedom of expression and social reformation whenever necessary. Any highly divisive political issue can evoke emotional distress and confrontational arguments that many want to avoid or rather not discuss.

Socio-cultural trends in western countries pinpoint to new "taboos", the avoidance of any "prejudicial" statements or comments about race (not necessarily on skin color, but also ethnicity and nationality), class, disability, gender and sexual orientation, also treated as improper subject matter in social circles, whether in private and public settings, or in words of comedian Colin Quinn on a 2004 television appearance:

We as a society thought about fighting racism, but we created a new "taboo" 30 years ago: The only rule about diversity is you don't talk about it, and we pretended if racism isn't talked about, racism will go away.[citation needed]

It may be taboos are implanted to deal with difficult issues, like on inequality of their citizens remains alive in open democratic countries, devoted to prohibit or prevent prejudice and discrimination, by corrective measures in individuals and society in general, but a society learns or discovers the complexity or seriousness of a problematic crisis (see moral panic) may developed new rules and social mores to tackle a "taboo" issue.

In Europe, where it has a deep-rooted tradition of tolerance of its various minority groups, there is reluctance by the news media and public opinion to express or explore issues on radical Islam inside their immigrant communities, religious conflict (i.e. Northern Ireland and former Yugoslavia like Bosnia or Kosovo), and holocaust denial which is a crime in eight European countries where the Holocaust took place during World War II is seen as taboo.

In North America, racial segregation, affirmative action and multiculturalism are not easily debated in order not to violate sacrosanct ideals of equality and cultural freedom (the "free to be me" mentality). Europeans balk at American etiquette on not discussing sex (America was founded by puritan Christian settlers) and religion (the US' tradition of religious freedom), but understood the societal nature of North Americans and tourists when they visit another country must respect other differences on cultural etiquette of other countries ("out of town" manner).

But, many Americans disagree with hate laws in Europe, which forbid any public expression of negative racial or religious comments (and anti- homosexual comments as well), and government criticism was more taboo in Europe (or banned in countries under Communism in Eastern Europe) before the cold war ended. For a society to seriously retract from criticism of their government and leaders because of official concerns on national security indicates a taboo is based on real threats that could cut down freedom of expression.

Part of the blame for the generated "new taboos" on diversity is from younger generations are taught to respect people of color and cultural differences, brought down from an older generation expressed their shame and guilt on past atrocities against minorities. This social trend created an attitude to deal with sensitive issues dealing with minority groups, called political correctness developed in the 1980's and 1990's, brought on socio-behavioral changes on an individual, not an institutional level (the Civil rights movement of the 1960s took down racial segregation laws).

The so-called "racial taboos" or "race manners" adhered when any socio-cultural majority deals with anyone considered from a minority group (i.e. European Jews, African Americans, Native Americans, Roma (Gypsies), women (sexism), homosexuals, Latinos in the US, Japanese Americans whose families were in internment, and North Africans in France). When the majority feels historic discrimination happened and past wrongs must not only be corrected, but to educate others on the impact of prejudice in society is too hard (or became "taboo") to admit they really happened.

The explosive racial slur nigger and in sexual orientation, faggot are examples of prohibitions of "hate speech" as a taboo of our times. In 2006, two entertainers Mel Gibson and Michael Richards in the public eye, and US senator George Allen stirred media frenzy and public emotion on saying racially charged, and in Mel Gibson's case, anti-Semitic rants and comments.

In 2007, Grey's Anatomy actor Isaiah Washington denied he used an anti-gay slur against co-star T.R. Knight, who later admitted he was a homosexual. And ESPN sportscaster Sean Salisbury was assumed to used the pejorative "Jew" and "nickel-and-dime" that some viewers contend he made a "faux pas" by using an ethnic or religious group term. These media sensational reports bring forth controversy over slurs against any particular group of people is taboo and unpopular in modern society.[citation needed]

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/taboo
  2. ^ http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/taboo
  3. ^ Freud (1950, 24).
  4. ^ Freud (1950, 26–30).
  5. ^ Freud (1950, 31).
  6. ^ Freud (1950, 32).
  7. ^ Frazer (1911, 135), quoting Brown (1845, [76]).
  8. ^ Frazer (1911, 135), quoting Tregear (1890, [100]).
  9. ^ Freud (1950, 52), quoting Frazer (1911, 138f.).
  10. ^ Frazer (1990, 142), quoting Boas (1890 [643f.]).
  11. ^ Frazer (1990, 144), quoting Blumentritt (1891, 182).
  12. ^ Frazer (1990, 357).
  13. ^ Dixon (2002, 27).
  14. ^ Freud (1950, 54).
  15. ^ Freud (1950, 57).
  16. ^ Frazer (1922, 3).
  17. ^ Freud (1990, 372).
  18. ^ Frazer (1922, 5).
  19. ^ Freud (1950, 58), quoting Wundt (1906, 49).
  20. ^ Freud (1950, 58).
  21. ^ Freud (1950, 59), quoting Westermarck (1906–8, 2, 534f.).
  22. ^ Freud (1950, 41–42), quoting Frazer (1911, 132).
  23. ^ Frazer (1911, 3f.), quoting Bastian (1874-5 [1, 287 & 355]).
  24. ^ Frazer (1911, 11f.).
  25. ^ Freud (1950, 39).
  26. ^ Freud (1950, 39), quoting [Müller (1857, 2, 252)].
  27. ^ Freud (1950, 39), [quoting Frazer (1911, 167)].
  28. ^ Freud (1950, 39), quoting Frazer (1911, 167).

[edit] References

  • Bastian, A. (1874–5). Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste. [2 vols.] Jena.
  • Blumentritt, F. (1891). "Über die Eingeborenen der Insel Palawan". Globus, 59: [181ff.]
  • Boas, F. (1890). "Second General Report on the Indians of British Columbia". Report of Sixtieth Meeting of the British Association: [562ff.]
  • Brown, W. (1845). New Zealand and its Aborigines. London.
  • Frazer, J. G. (1911). Taboo and the Perils of the Soul (The Golden Bough, 3rd ed., Part II). London.
  • Frazer, J. G. (1990). Taboo and the Perils of the Soul (The Golden Bough, 3rd ed., Part II). New York: St. Martin's Press. [1st ed., 1913.]
  • Müller, S. (1857). Reizen en Onderzoekingen in den Indischen Archipel, Amsterdam.
  • Tregear, E. (1890). "The Maoris of New Zealand". Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xix.
  • Zweifel, J., and M. Moustier (1880). Voyage aux sources du Niger. Marseilles.

[edit] External links

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