Suren-Pahlav Clan

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The Crest of Suren-Pahlav Clan.
The Crest of Suren-Pahlav Clan.[1]

The House of Suren-Pahlav, is one of the oldest surviving clans in the world, dates back to 111 BC, which once was one of members of the Seven Parthian clans. They were dominating estates in Sistan and area around Nishapur, and were first among Parthian nobility, that had the privilege to crown the Arsacid as well as Sasanian dynastic kings.[2][3][4][5]

Contents

[edit] The Origin

Kuh-e Khwajeh Eastern Slope, known as Kuk-i Kohzadh
Kuh-e Khwajeh Eastern Slope, known as Kuk-i Kohzadh

The greatest ruling clans (Vispuhrs) of ancient Iran, at the time of the Parthian dynasty (248 BC - AD 224), were traditionally seven families, and the two most predominant of them were the Suren and Karen, of the Parthian (Arsacid) descent, and bore the surname of "-Pahlav" meaning “Parthian”.[6] Suren-Pahlav Clan was considered to be the second clan of Parthia after the Arsacids themselves.[7]

Suren-Pahlavs were one of the noble members of Parni branch of the Aryan (or better known as the Indo-Iranian) Stock, a member tribe of the Dahae confederation, (Dahae-Parno-Parthian) tribes (chose chiefs for war and princes for peace) from among the closest circle of the princely family. The Parnis were famous for their breeding of horses, for their combat cavalry, and for their fine archers. They have been a people who kept the traditions of patriarchal tribal organisation. The Suren-Pahlavs alongside the other members of the Parni, with Arsaces at their head, took the province of Parthovia (Parthia) after having beaten the Seleucid satrap Andragoras and soon, neighbouring Hyrcania was annexed and the Caspian reached. The first of the Parnis Ashk or Arakhsh (Arsaces) had himself crowned in the city of Asaak, and the tribe took the name of the Parthians, their close relatives, a name that meant "exiled." Their language was from Sacian (Indo-Iranian) family, closely related to Scythian and Median. The dynasty these people produced never broke its links with the people, and rare was the Arsacid dynastic sovereign who did not turn to his people in time of danger.

The Suren-Pahlavs, were dominating estates in Sistan and area around Nishapur, and were first among Parthian nobility, that had the privilege to crown the Arsacid as well as Sasanian dynastic kings.[8][9] According to Moses of Chorene, the Surens along with Karens and Artashes, and their sister Kosham who was married to the "commander of the cavalry" (Spahbed) were the children of the Parthian king Arshavir, who is usually identified with Phraates IV (38–2 BC).[10]. However, this statement has been proven inaccurate, at least regarding their relations to Phraates IV, since the the oldest record of Suren-Pahlav Clan was found in the Nisa archive, which several documents of the early Parthian period (ca. 170 BC to 1348 BC, during the reign of Phraates I or Mithridates I [11]) mention a member of Suren-Pahlav Clan was borne the title of the "commander-in-chief of the horse" (Cavalry)[12].


[edit] Foundation

The founder of house of Suren-Pahlav was Kofasat Suren-Pahlav, one of the Vispuhrs (Sons of the Clans) and the companion of Mithradates the Great[13], who lived c. 111 BC. In an episode of Sistan origin he inserted into the Shahnameh and still localised today at the ruins of mount Ushidā also known as “Kuh-e Khwajeh” in the “Hamun lake” and the ruins on the southern slope, is still known as Kal-e i Rustam as well as Kuk-u Kohzadh,[14] (is known that, at Bistun there was his sculpture[15] ) However, the two centuries following his time were the period in which the older Iranian myth became transformed into a chivalresque epic (similar to the relation of the Edda to the Nibelungen) and in which many historical figures were introduced into the older form of the legend, among them the historical Kofasat as Kohzad.[16],

[edit] Rustaham

See main article: Surena

Bronze Statue of Rustaham, the "Surena".
Bronze Statue of Rustaham, the "Surena".
King Gondophares's Crest according to Iranian sources, as well as the Shapur I.
King Gondophares's Crest according to Iranian sources[17], as well as the Shapur I[18].

Another member of Surens, which later had his name inserted into Shahnameh, was Eran Spahbodh (Iran’s Commander of forces) Rustaham Suren-Pahlav (84BC to 31BC), who defeated Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC.[19] The name under which he appears in the western classical sources was apparently no more than his hereditary title, that of Suren, which continues to appear in the record of Iranian history far into Sasanian times.

His name is preserved amongst the throng, of epic heroes whose deeds are recalled in the Kayanian section of the Shahnameh. The feat of arms performed by Suren was certainly the most celebrated of the whole Ashkanian era, was not vanished entirely. Thus in some ways the position of great Suren in the historical tradition is curiously parallel to that of Rustam the hero of the Shahnameh. His figure has been endowed with many features of a historical personality of the Rustam. The latter he was always represented as the mightiest of Iranian paladins, and the atmosphere of the episodes in which he features is strongly reminiscent of the Parthian period.

[edit] Gondophares

See main article: Gondophares

Profile of king Gondophares, founder of the Indo-Parthian kingdom.
Profile of king Gondophares, founder of the Indo-Parthian kingdom.
King Gondophares's Crest.
King Gondophares's Crest.

Eran-Spahbodh Rustaham’s youngest son, Rustaham-Gondofarr Suren-Pahlav or simply Gondophares, the ruler of the eastern-greater Iran, who ruled between 10BC to AD17 on the vast empire of the Saka at the time of Arsacid dynasty[20], seems have been the founder of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom and the king of India. In the Acts of St. Thomas he appears as Gaspar or Kaspar/Casper, Persian Jasper among Three Magi, which was inserted in a Biblical story of their visit to Bethlehem.

[edit] House During the Sasanian Dynasty (224-651 AD)

At the court of the King of Kings Ardeshir I the founder of Sasanian dynasty, the Arsacid families of Suren-Pahlav and Karen-Pahlav, along with the Persian families of Varazes and Andigans held positions of great honour.[21][22] Ardeshir’s successor King of Kings Shapour I, was used the Gondophar’s crest (a circle surrounded by crescent), that may indicate, his relationship through his mother to the House of Suren-Pahlav.[23], However, there is a complete analogy with the appearance, at the court of the King of Kings of Iran and Aniran (non-Iranian = Uncivilised Lands, the term for non-Iranians) of the new dynasty, of the kings of Merv, Abarshahr, Carmania, Sakastan, Iberia and Adiabene, mentioned in the ranks of the nobles holding the positions of highest honour. After all, the extensive domains of the Surens, Karens and Varazes also have originally become part of the Sasanian state as semi-independent states: the Suren-Pahlavs maintained their rule over the Sakastan, and one of their branches ruled the area around Nishapur[24].

In AD 363, after a combat with Iranians, the Roman emperor Julian the Apostate was mortally wounded, and after his death the new emperor, Jovian, found his army in a disadvantageous position. A thirty years peace treaty was made between Iran and Rome, which Varnan Suren-Pahlav son of Kofasat & Shapurdokht , was the ambassador of King of Kings, Shapur II.

Iran obtained most of the former Roman possessions east of the Tigris as well as the cities of Nisibis, Singara and others. Armenia was also abandoned by the Romans and was temporarily conquered by Iranian forces led by Varnan’s eldest son, Eran-Spahbodh Goudarz Suren-Pahlav, the General of Shapur, seized Armenia.

Afterwards, Shapur sought to come to an agreement over Armenia with the emperor Valens, but this was not possible until the invasion of the Goths in the Balkans near Constantinople distracted the Romans. Then in AD 382, the Iranians once again, under the command of Goudarz Suren-Pahlav, the new Shapur’s appointed governor, took the lion's share of Armenia, while the Romans had to be content with a small area mainly around Mount Ararat. Armenia, however, continued to remain a bone of contention between the two empires in coming centuries. Goudarz Suren-Pahlav, was the first member of Suren-Pahlav who appointed as Sasanian governor of Armenia.

Later in 2331 (AD 564), Soren-Nersi Suren-pahlav, the Sasanian governor of Armenia, who had been appointed by the King of Kings Khosrow Parviz, introduced Armenian to Zoroastrian religion, and built a fire temple at Dvin[25] an important town near modern Erevan.[26] Armenian uprising against Iranian rule in AD 572[27] ended with massacre of Marzban Soren-Nersi and most of his family members along with his Iranian bodyguards.[28] Only surviving members of his family was Shapur Suren-Pahlav the governor of Nihavand, and Mehrdad Suren-Pahlav the governor of Sistan.

The grandson of Soren-Nersi Suren-Pahlav, Eran-Sepahbodh Shahin Suren-Pahlav who was the commander of the northern Iranian forces marched through Anatolia to Chalcedon, opposite the Byzantine capital, and continued his conquests of various towns in Anatolia. In the spring of AD 618 Iranian troops under his and Shahrbaraz able commands, entered Egypt and besieged Alexandria, which soon fell.

According to Ibn Khordadbeh, Karnāranags the hereditary governor (Espahbed) of Khorasan may have been descendants of Surens, which their capitals was Nishapur prior to invasion of Iran by Arabs in 7th century. The Karnāranags also had military obligation of defending the countryside which was always exposed to the raids of the Hephthalites from Badghis, and for this reason they made they residence in Tus. [29]

[edit] House after Arab invasion of Iran & Islamic era

After the invasion of Iran by Arabs in 7th century, many members of the Suren-Pahlav family along with other Parthian as well as Sasanian nobles have fled from mainland Iran to Central Asia, Armenia and even to China. They contributed to the spread of the Persian language in such cities as Bukhara and Samarqand in place of Sogdian.[30] A Pahlavi or Middle Persian-Chinese bilingual inscription on a grave-stone has been found near the town of Sian in Shaanxi province of western China, records the death of a princess of the Suren-Pahlav family from the year 872 or 874.[31] According to historical accounts she was daughter of a military commander of Suren-Pahlav Clan in Northern China.[32]

According to some historians, Malek Mahmud Sistani, the ruler of Sistan was one of the Suren-Pahlavs who pretended that he had become a Muslim and led an uprising against the Shia government of Safavids in 1720s. He conquered Mashhad and Nishapur, and crowned himself as the Kayanian King of Iran in pre-Islamic Iranian traditions. Among his army were many Zoroastrians. After his defeat by Nader Qoli (later Nader Shah Afshar) in 1726, the Safavid king Shah Sultan Hussain ordered the massacre of Zoroastrians, in which 1.3 million Zoroastrians lost their lives[33].

After the uprising many Suren-Pahlavs lost their lives, among them were two their warriors by the names of Ashkzad and Sepahzad who were skinned alive. Their skins were filled with grass and were hanged from both sites of the main gate of the city of Zabol, as a warning.

Two of the Surens known to became Muslims and had established themselves in the city of Ardestan in the edge of desert, after the defeat of Malik Mahmud and their escape from Nishapur.[34] "Ashk" changed his name to "Ashj`a", which become the ancestor of Ashjazadeh family and the other was called "Mobed" who changed his name to "Mo'men" built a mosque and Ab Anbar and named after himself. He also restored the Ardestan ancient congregational mosque (formerly a Zorastrian fire Temple[35]) and the city Aqueduct. Two families of Jenab-Mahabadi and Mahabadi-Mahabad in that region are his descendants.[36]

[edit] Clan's Structure

The clan prior to Arab invasion of Iran in 7th century CE was based on bilateral lineage system, consisting of all the descendants of the apical ancestor through both the male and female lines, but since then it had become patrilineal, meaning its members are related through the male line only. Also as the result of the invasion they become endogamous, meaning that its members cannot marry outsiders.

Most of today Suren-Pahlavs residing in Sistan and Isfahan provinces, and though, some of the clan members are scattered around the world, but on 22nd December every year, all the members are gathering in a village near the city of Zabol for reunion and updating the clan’s censuses. Currently the chieftain or Vazrag.suren (the Grand Suren) of the clan is 74 years-old retired medical doctor by the name of Ashkzad-Suren Suren-Pahlav.

Although, Suren-Pahlavs are the local feudals and own many of the villages and lands surrounding the city of Zabol and lake Hamun, but they managed to keep their presence unnoticed to outsiders watchful eyes, and therefore unaffected by current political turmoil in today Iran. This is as the result of an ingenious policy of integration and understanding without marriage with local populations. This has given them the edge and protection from gheyrmehremān (outsiders - called by locals) that they need to continue their historical presence. The local designation for Suren-Pahlav clan is Pahlavan (the mighty and Hero - possibly it is referring to those who came from Parthia).

[edit] Coat of Arms and Crest

Suren-Pahlav Coat of Arm, depicted on an ancient Seals from Clan Seal Collection (This the only picture that has ever been permitted to be taken by an outsider)
Suren-Pahlav Coat of Arm, depicted on an ancient Seals from Clan Seal Collection (This the only picture that has ever been permitted to be taken by an outsider)

The House of Suren-Pahlav’ official Coat of arms is a standing male-lion depicted on a gilded-bronze shield known as the “Suren Shield”, which belonged to the Great General Surena. It is believed that he had this shield with himself during the Battle of Carrhae with the Romans [37].

The standing roaring-Lion, holds a sword in one hand, and a bow in the other—one of its’ legs is also resting on the lower section of the bow. The Lion is depicted as wearing a crown similar to those found on the Parthian coins, with an crest on the top.[38], The crest is composition of a crescent moon in the bottom and sun in the middle—this is considered to be their “crest”. However, though the "crescent moon" is generally identified as the iconographic symbol of Māh (Moon God)[39][40] and "sun", as the God Mithra[41], but the iconographical representation of the symbolic crest combined together as a unit is unknown.

This symbolic crest was later adopted by Sasanian king of kings Shapur I, and continued to be in use in latter dates by his successors, until the fall of the dynasty in 7th century. Adopting the crest by Shapur I probably points out to his lineage with the house of Suren-Pahlav, through his mother[42], Lady Myrôd[43].

In later dates the Umayyad and latter Arab Caliphs have adopted the crest and in recent centuries, many of modern and newly formed Islamic states such as Pakistan and Turkey have also adopted the sign. In general it is currently being associated with Muslims and Islamic faith, with a difference—the sun has been replaced with a star (☪).

In al-Mamālek al-Sistān (the Lands of Sistan), a 15th century manuscript written by Muhammab ibn-Fakhroldin-e Sistani, reports: “…they [Suren-Pahlavs] claim that they ruled this land [Sistan] from the time of Daqyānūs [ancient]; they wear a strange and long headgear, and say that the Prophet Abraham had given them to one of their ancestors. On the headgear there is a sign showing the crescent moon and the sun-like circle in the middle; they even tattoo the sign on their left chest, where the heart is, or their left-arms, to be a reminder that they are faithful follower of Prophet Abraham. It is said that in old times they have claimed that the “sun” in the daytimes and “moon” in the nights are the only things above them, and no one else.”

[edit] Rituals and Customs

Few outsiders are ever allowed to attend the clan’s annual-ritual-ceremonies; -therefore our full knowledge about their traditions and rituals remains in ambiguity. Also due to oppositions from the clan’s chieftain and elders, no research has ever been permitted to be carried out.

Nevertheless, this limited information tells us that every-year during their annual ceremony the “Grand Suren”, clad in full Parthian outfit, presents the clan with five articles: a piece of leather, which is believed to have belonged to Kohzad, the legendry founder of the clan – a bloodstained-purple-shirt made of silk, believed to belonged to the General Surena, which he wore at the time of his execution by the order of the King Orodes II – along with his shield and sword when he defeated Marcus Licinius Crassus, the Roman triumvir in 53 BC, at the battle of Carrhae; and finally a breastplate, believed to belonged to Gordafarid the grand-daughter of Surena, who was a renowned warrior according to them. It is well possible, that her name is also preserved amongst the throng, of epic heroes whose deeds are recorded in Shahnameh, as she became the symbol of courage, gallantry and wisdom for Iranian women in the epic work.

The surname of "Suren-Pahlav" is permitted to be adopted only by those who have a direct lineage with the Grand Suren, who is himself has a direct and full-blood lineage to the Kohzad. Usually whoever, carries this surname is next in line to become the clan’s future chieftain. Those who are not permitted to adopt the surname of Suren-Pahlav (despite their lineage), have double-barrel first name starting with Ashk-, Ashkan- or Ashkzad- for male members; and for female members Ashkdokht. Only the eldest child permitted to have the name of Ashkan-Suren (male members) and Ashkdokht-Gordafarid (female members). Those who their fathers carry the surname of Suren-Pahlav and are not in line of succession, they have to assume a new surname for themselves [44].

[edit] Language

According to renowned Persian linguists, Professor Frahvashi, the clan has its’ own language/dialect known as Lashkari/Pahlavani, which is mixture of Parthian and Sasanian Pahlavi, as well as Sistani and New-Persian. It is said that they currently hold the most extensive Parthian and Sasanian texts in the world, which unfortunately only two scholars have ever gained a limited access to examine them in 1977, and their library could open the gates for retrieving the lost Partho-Sasanian literatures[45].

[edit] Religion

The cult of Mithra was the religion of Parthians,[46] and it is unknown whether the Suren-Pahlavs were also following the same religion, or originally they were Zoroastrians. However, around AD 150 Goudarz son of Verazdad, the head of Suren-Pahlavs at that time, built a Zoroastrian fire temple at Kuh-e Khwajeh in Sistan.

Although, Suren-Pahlavs are Zoroastrians ("vehdēn", a derivative of Avestan Daênâ Vañuhi the good religion[47]), but in some cases their approach to the religion differs from other Zoroastrian communities. Their priest “Veh-Din Meleng” could be either male or female, and are of the members of the clan. According to Professor Frahvashi, Surens do not subscribe to any texts written after the fall of Parthian dynasty, since Sasanian dynasty considered to be a heretical regime and Anti-Zoroastrian. As the result, they believe all the Zoroastrian texts that were compiled or written by Sasanians to be false, and is being regarded as politically motivated religious propaganda to oppress their subjects.

As the result the only texts that they accept as true Zoroastrian divine texts are, firstly is Gathas, which is hymns of Prophet Zoroaster composed around 18th century BC, some parts of “Yashts” and parts of “Khorda Avesta”, which were claimed to had been compiled during the Parthian dynasty (248 BC -224 AD) after the destruction of religious establishment by Alexander of Macedon.

[edit] Funerary Practice

According to Hossein Yadegari (an Iranian anthropologist from Sistan, and one of the few experts who carried out some limited research), Suren-Pahlavs bury their dead, contrary to the past and present Zoroastrian traditions, and it seems that this funerary practice has been observed by their ancestors during the Parthians times, which has been continued to this date.

They first dig the ground quite deep, well over 3 meters; its width is slightly larger than the coffin size and about two meters long, which the surface and walls will be covered with a coat of gypsum. After placing the coffin in the grave, they cover it with slabs and afterwards apply another coat of gypsum on the top and than filled with earth.

The glazed "slipper-coffin" has number of holes in a circle shape, believed to prevent cracks in the coffin. This is as the result of the gases generated from decomposed body. They also place a number of objects in the coffin, including, a bottle filed with water and properly sealed; two jars (tightly sealed to prevent any contamination from the decomposed body), one containing soil (from Hamun lake) and the other filled with salt; -a piece of small silver coin-like disk placed under the diseased tongue; -a key placed in the right hand and (ironically to this date) an iron-arrowhead in the palm of the left hand. All the graves are the North-West – South-East direction.


[edit] Notes

  1. ^ E. E. Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East New York (1988), p310-311., ISBN:0-87817-308-0
  2. ^ N. C. Debevoise, A Political History of Parthia (1938), p. xxxix, 161.
  3. ^ V. G. Lukonian, "The Selucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods", The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3(2), p.683 - ISBN: 0-521-24693-8
  4. ^ G. Rawlinson, Sixth Greatest Oriental Monarchy, or the Georgraphy, history, and antiquities of Parthia, New York (1872), p86.
  5. ^ Ibid., p235.
  6. ^ E. E. Herzfeld, "Sakastan", AMI, IV (1932), p70.
  7. ^ James R. Russell, Zoroastrianism in Armenia, Harvard University Press, (1987) p. 173, ISBN:0-674-96850-6.
  8. ^ N. C. Debevoise, A Political History of Parthia (1938), p. xxxix, 161.
  9. ^ V. G. Lukonian, "The Selucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods", The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3(2), p.683 - ISBN: 0-521-24693-8
  10. ^ V. G. Lukonian, "The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods", The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3(2), p.705 - ISBN: 0-521-24693-8
  11. ^ Vladimir A. Livshits, Three New Ostraca Documents from Old Nisa, (LINK); accessed March 12, 2007.
  12. ^ V. G. Lukonian, "The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods", The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3(2), p.704 - ISBN: 0-521-24693-8
  13. ^ E. E. Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East New York (1988), p291., ISBN:0-87817-308-0
  14. ^ E. E. Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East New York (1988), p291., ISBN:0-87817-308-0
  15. ^ E. E. Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East New York (1988), p291., ISBN:0-87817-308-0
  16. ^ E. E. Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East New York (1988), p287., ISBN:0-87817-308-0
  17. ^ Chantal Fabrégues, The Indo-Parthian Beginnings of Gandhara Sculpture, (LINK); accessed March 07, 2007
  18. ^ E. E. Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East New York (1988), p310-311., ISBN:0-87817-308-0
  19. ^ N. C. Debevoise, A Political History of Parthia (1938), p.70-95
  20. ^ E. E. Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East New York (1988), p291., ISBN:0-87817-308-0
  21. ^ V. G. Lukonian, "The Selucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods", The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3(2), p.705 - ISBN: 0-521-24693-8
  22. ^ Richard N. Frye, Emperor Ardeshir & the cycle of History, (LINK); accessed March 06, 2007.
  23. ^ E. E. Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East New York (1988), p311., ISBN:0-87817-308-0
  24. ^ V. G. Lukonian, "The Selucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods", The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3(2), p.705 - ISBN: 0-521-24693-8
  25. ^ Richard Frye , Reforms of Chosroes Anushirvan (The Immortal Soul), (LINK); accessed March 06, 2007.
  26. ^ James R. Russell, Zoroastrianism in Armenia, Harvard University Press, (1987) p. 489, ISBN:0-674-96850-6.
  27. ^ Ibid., p.489.
  28. ^ Richard Frye , Reforms of Chosroes Anushirvan (The Immortal Soul), (LINK); accessed March 06, 2007.
  29. ^ M. A. Shaban, "Khurasan at the Time of the Arab Conquest", in Iran and Islam, in memory of Vlademir Minorsky, Edinburgh University Press, (1971), p480; ISBN: 0 85224 200 x.
  30. ^ Richard Nelson Frye, "The Selucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods", The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3(1), p.176 - ISBN: 0-521-24699-7
  31. ^ Ibid.
  32. ^ V. G. Lukonian, "The Selucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods", The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3(2), p.683 - ISBN: 0-521-24693-8
  33. ^ Rashid Shahmardan, Tārīkh-e Zartoshtiān pas az Sāsāniān Tehran SH/1360, p.466
  34. ^ Lotfali Ibn Aqa-Khan Azar Beigdali, Atashkadeh Azar, SH/1332, p. 77.
  35. ^ Ibid., p.12.
  36. ^ Rafii Mehrabadi, Atashkadeh Ardestan, Tehran SH/1382, p.38-39.
  37. ^ A. Taheri, M.A. Thesis, Surenha", Tahqiq-e Tarikhi va Nedzadi, Zabol University, SH/1373.
  38. ^ E. E. Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East New York (1988), p311., ISBN:0-87817-308-0
  39. ^ Ibid. p. 263, 296, 319
  40. ^ Mary Boyce, A History of Zoroastrianism, Vol. I., Leiden (1996), p.69; ISBN:90-04-10747
  41. ^ Ibid.
  42. ^ E. E. Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East New York (1988), p311., ISBN:0-87817-308-0
  43. ^ Shapur Shahbazi, Shapur I, the Great, (LINK); accessed March 07, 2007.
  44. ^ Hossein Yadegari, Mardomshenasi Sistan va Blochistan, Tehran SH/1360.
  45. ^ Hossein Yadegari, Mardomshenasi Sistan va Blochistan, Tehran SH/1360
  46. ^ Edward C. D. Hopkins, The Religion of Parthia, (LINK); accessed March 08, 2007
  47. ^ Jafari, A., The Good Religion and Zoroastrianism, (LINK); accessed March 08, 2007.


[edit] Bibliography

  • A. D. H. Bivar, "The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids" in Ehsan Yarshater (ed.) Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. III, Part I. CUP, 1983.
  • P. S. R. Payne, The Splendor of Persia 1957.
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  • N. C. Debevoise, A Political History of Parthia 1938.
  • R. Girshman et al., Persia, the Immortal Kingdom 1971.
  • 'A. Reza`i, Tarikh-e Dah-Hezar Saleh Iran, Vol. 1. SH/1376.
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  • Fred B. Shore, Parthian Coins and History: Ten Dragons Against Rome, Quarryville, PA: CNG, 1993.
  • P. B. Lozinski, The Original Homeland of the Parthians 1959.
  • G. M. Cohen, "The Seleucid Colonies", Historia Einzelschriften 30, Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1978.
  • J. Wolski, L’Empire des Arsacides, Peeters, Gent, 1993.
  • Sh. Suren-Pahlav, General Surena, the Hero of Carrhae (LINK)
  • M. A. R. Colledge, The Parthians (1967).
  • M. J. Mashkur and M. Rajab-Nia, Tarikh-e Siyasi va 'Ejtema'i Ashkanian, SH/1374.
  • E. Herzfeld, Archaeological History of Persia, 1935.
  • A. T. Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire, 2d ed. 1969.
  • G. G. Cameron, History of Early Iran 1936, repr. 1969
  • V. S. Curtis, "Parthian culture and costume", in J. Curtis (ed.), Mesopotamia and Iran in the Parthian and Sasanian periods, London, 2000
  • Lotfali Ibn Aqa-Khan Azar Beigdali, Atashkadeh Azar, SH/1332.
  • Rafii Mehrabadi, Atashkadeh Ardestan, Tehran SH/1382


[edit] See also

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