Spiral of silence
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The spiral of silence is a political science and mass communication theory propounded by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann. The theory asserts that a person is less likely to voice an opinion on a topic if one feels that one is in the minority for fear of reprisal or isolation from the majority (Anderson 1996: 214; Miller 2005: 277).
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[edit] Basic Framework
The spiral of silence begins with fear of reprisal or isolation, and escalates from there. Individuals use what is described as "an innate ability" or quasi-statistical sense to gauge public opinion (Miller 2005: 278). The media plays a large part in determining what the dominant opinion is, since our direct observation is limited to a small percentage of the population. The media has such an enormous impact on how public opinion is portrayed, and can dramatically impact an individuals perception about where public opinion lies, whether or not that portrayal is factual (Scheufele and Moy 1999). Noelle-Neumann describes the spiral of silence as dynamic process, in which predictions about public opinion become fact as the media's coverage of the majority opinion becomes the status quo, and the minority becomes less likely to speak out (Miller 2005:278). The theory, however, only applies to moral issues, not issues that can be proven right or wrong using facts.
[edit] Uses and Limitations
It is as much a measure of protection as it is one of oppression. Since it only applies to moral issues, which tend to evoke passionate responses in even the most reserved individuals, it can be used to contain social unrest over highly controversial topics (Eckstein and Turman 2002; Gonzenbach and Stevenson 1994; Gonzenbach, King, & Jablonski 1999; Moy, Domke & Stamm 2001; Shanahan, Scheufele, Fang Yang, & Hizi 2004). Though it can aide in keeping civil order, attempts to employ it knowingly are essentially methods of manipulation and coercion. For instance, the "don't ask, don't tell" policy as a compromise on the ban on gays in the military, allows gays to serve in the military and protects them from reprisal from other personnel. It also makes blatantly clear the Military's intolerance for gay people, as instead of imposing penalties on reprisal it requires a discharge of an individual who is gay.
[edit] Overcoming the Silence
The theory explains a vocal minority by stating that people who are highly educated, or who have greater affluence, and the few other cavalier individuals who do not fear isolation, are likely to speak out regardless of public opinion (Miller 2005: 279). It further states that this minority is a necessary factor of change while the compliant majority is a necessary factor of stability, with both being a product of evolution.
[edit] Current Research
The spiral of silence tends to be the outcome of something controversial and political in nature. For that reason most current research focuses on hot-button social issues such as smoking, and the aftermath of September 11, 2001 (Shanahan et al. 2004). It focuses mainly on current events, and can indicate shifts in societal norms and value structures. The theory seems valid when examining westernized cultures, but studies have failed to take into account cross-cultural differences that may affect one's willingness to speak out (Scheufele and Moy 1999).
[edit] References
- Anderson, J.A. (1996). Communication theory: epistemological foundations. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
- Eckstein, N.J.; Turman, P.D. (2002). "Children are to be seen and not heard": silencing students religious voices in the university classroom. Journal of Communication and Religion, 2,166-192.
- Gonzenbach, W.J.; King, C.; Jablonski, P. (1999). Homosexuals and the military: an analysis of the spiral of silence. Howard Journal of Communication, 4, 281-296.
- Gonzenbach, W.J.; Stevenson, R.L. (1994). Children with AIDS attending public school: an analysis of the spiral of silence. Political Communication, 1, 3-18.
- Miller, K. (2005). Communication theories: perspectives, processes, and contexts. (2nd ed). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
- Moy, P.; Domke, D.; Stamm, K. (2001). The spiral of silence and public opinion on affirmative action. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 1, 7-25.
- Noelle-Neumann, E. (1993). The Spiral of Silence: Public Opinion - Our Social Skin. University of Chicago Press.
- Noelle-Neumann, E. (1974). The spiral of silence: a theory of public opinion. Journal of Communication, 24, 43-51
- Scheufele, D.A.; Moy, P. (1999). Twenty-five years of the spiral of silence: a conceptual review and empirical outlook. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 1, 954-982.
- Schmierback, M.; Boyle, M.P.; McLeod, D.M. (2005). Civic attachment in the aftermath of September 11. Mass Communication and Society, 4, 323-346.
- Shanahan, J.; Scheufele, D.A.; Fang Yang; Hizi, S. (2004). Cultivation and spiral of silence effects:the case of smoking. Mass Communication and Society, 4, 413-428.
