Southeast Asia

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Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic and volcanic activity.

Southeast Asia consists of two geographic regions: the Asian mainland, and island arcs and archipelagoes to the east and southeast. The Asian mainland section consists of Cambodia, Laos, a part of Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam; the population of which are primarily Tai peoples and Austroasiatic peoples and the dominant religion is Buddhism, followed by Confucianism. Maritime Southeast Asia consists of the Philippines, East Timor, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei. Austronesian peoples predominate in this region, and the dominant religion is Islam followed by Christianity.

Contents 1 Divisions 1.1 Political 1.2 Geographical 2 History 2.1 Chinese trade 2.2 Western colonization 2.3 Present 3 Geography 3.1 Boundaries 3.2 Climate 3.3 Environment 4 Economy 5 Population 5.1 Ethnic groups 5.1.1 Distinct minorities 5.1.1.1 Negritos 5.1.1.2 Peranakans 5.1.1.3 Filipino Mestizos 5.2 Religions 5.3 Languages 6 Culture 6.1 Influences 6.2 The Arts 6.2.1 Music 6.2.2 Writing 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

[edit] Divisions

[edit] Political

Southeast Asia frequently refers to the area consisting of the following, although in general and certain specific usage, the area it refers to can be narrower or broader (e.g. including the southernmost coastal regions of China as well as Bangladesh, South India, Sri Lanka, and Maldives).

•  Brunei Darussalam
•  Cambodia
•  Indonesia
•  Laos
•  Malaysia
•  Myanmar
•  Philippines
•  Singapore
•  Thailand
•  Timor-Leste
•  Vietnam

All of the above are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), except East Timor, which is a candidate. The area, together with part of South Asia, was previously known as the East Indies or simply Indies. Although politically external territories of Australia, Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands are culturally part of Southeast Asia.^{[citation needed]} Although politically a part of India, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are considered to be geographically part of Southeast Asia. The disputed areas of Paracel islands, Spratly islands, and Scarborough Shoal are also included in the region. While West Papua, however, is politically part of Southeast Asia through Indonesia, geographically it is often considered as part of Oceania.

[edit] Geographical

Southeast Asia is geographically divided into two regions, namely Indochina and the Malay Archipelago.

Indochina or sometimes mainland Southeast Asia includes all of:

• Myanmar
• Cambodia
• Lao PDR
• Thailand
• Vietnam

The Malay archipelago (Malay: Nusantara) or sometimes maritime Southeast Asia consists of:

• Andaman and Nicobar Islands^{[citation needed]}
• Brunei
• Christmas Island^{[citation needed]}
• Cocos (Keeling) Islands^{[citation needed]}
• East Timor
• Indonesia
• Malaysia
• Philippines
• Singapore

Malaysia is divided by the South China Sea. Peninsular Malaysia is on the mainland while East Malaysia is on Borneo, the largest islands in the region. However, Malaysia is often considered an archipelagic nation. Also, the eastern parts of Indonesia and Timor-Leste (east of Wallace line) are considered to be geographically parts of Oceania.

[edit] History

Main article: History of Southeast Asia

See also: Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, Imperialism in Asia, Indianized kingdom, Japanese foreign policy in Southeast Asia, List of tributaries of Imperial China, and The Ugly American

Solheim and others have shown evidence for a Nusantao (Nusantara) maritime trading network ranging from Vietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BCE to 1 CE)^[1]

The peoples of Southeast Asia, especially those of Austronesian descent, have been seafarers for thousands of years, some reaching the island of Madagascar. Their vessels, such as the vinta, were ocean-worthy. Magellan's voyage records how much more manœuvrable their vessels were, as compared to the European ships.^[2]

Passage through the Indian Ocean aided the colonization of Madagascar by the Malay race, as well as commerce between West Asia and Southeast Asia. Gold from Sumatra is thought to have reached as far west as Rome.

Originally most people were animist. This was later replaced by Brahmanic Hinduism. Theravada Buddhism soon followed in 525. In 1400s, Islamic influences began to enter. This forced the last Hindu court in Indonesia to retreat to Bali.

In Mainland South East Asia, Myanmar, Cambodia and Thailand retained the Theravada form of Buddhism, brought to them from Sri Lanka. This type of Buddhism was fused with the Hindu-influenced Khmer culture.

[edit] Chinese trade

Chinese merchants have traded with the region for a long time as evidence of Magellan's voyage records that Brunei possessed more cannon than the European ships so it appears that the Chinese fortified them.^[3]

There was also a Chinese emperor wmaintained ties with the region by sending a princess, Hang Li Po, with a retinue of 500 to Malacca, to marry its Sultan after he was impressed by the wisdom of King Mansur. Hang Li Po's well (constructed 1459) is now a tourist attraction there, as is Bukit Cina, where her retinue settled. The strategic value of the Strait of Malacca, which was controlled by Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th and early 16th century, did not go unnoticed by Portuguese writer Duarte Barbosa, who in 1500 wrote "He who is lord of Malacca has his hand on the throat of Venice".

[edit] Western colonization

Western influence started to enter in the 1500s, with the arrival of the Portuguese and Spanish in Moluccas and the Philippines.

European explorers were reaching Southeast Asia from the west and from the east. A regular trade between the sailing ships east, from the Indian Ocean and south from mainland Asia provided goods in return for natural products such as honey and hornbill beaks from the islands of the archipelago.

Europeans brought Christianity allowing Christian missionaries to become widespread. Siam also allowed Western science and technology to enter their coutry.

[edit] Present

Regional integration through ASEAN is one of the goals of Southeast Asian countries today.

Currently, there are various conflicting territorial and/or maritime claims, both among these countries and even involving other parties (notably both Chinas in the case of the Spratly Islands).

[edit] Geography

See also: Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia) and List of Southeast Asian mountains

Geologically, the Malay archipelago is one of the most active vulcanological regions in the world. Geological uplifts in the region have also produced some impressive mountains, culminating in Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia on the island of Borneo with a height of 4,101 metres (13,455 ft) and also Puncak Jaya in Irian Jaya, Indonesia at 4,884 metres (16,024 ft), on the island of New Guinea.

[edit] Boundaries

See also: Austronesia

The Australasian continental plate defines a region adjacent to Southeast Asia, which is also politically separated from the countries of Southeast Asia. But a cultural touch point lies between Papua New Guinea and the Indonesian province of Papua, which shares the island of New Guinea with Papua New Guinea. A considerable colonization effort of Papua is underway.

[edit] Climate

The climate of Southeast Asia is mainly tropical - hot and humid all year round. There is a lot of rainfall. The rain forest is the second largest on earth (with the Amazon being the largest). Exception to this type of climate and vegetation is the mountain areas in the northern region, where high attitudes lead to milder temperatures and drier landscape.

[edit] Environment

See also: Southeast Asian coral reefs and Wallace line

The animals of Southeast Asia are diverse; on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra, the Orangutan (man of the forest), the Asian Elephant, the Malayan tapir, the Sumatran Rhinoceros and the Bornean Clouded Leopard can be also found. The bearcat can be found on the island of Palawan.

The Water Buffalo, both domesticated and wild, can be found all over Southeast Asia, where once it was found in much greater extent in South Asia, for example. The mouse deer, a small tusked deer as large as a toy dog or cat, can be found on Sumatra, Borneo and Palawan Islands.

Birds such as the peafowl and drongo live in this subregion as far east as Indonesia. The babirusa, a four-tusked pig, can be found in Indonesia as well. The hornbill was prized for its beak and used in trade with China. The horn of the rhinoceros, not part of its skull, was prized in China as well.

The Indonesian Archipelago is split by the Wallace Line. This line runs along what is now known to be a tectonic plate boundary, and separates Asian (Western) species from Australasian (Eastern) species. The islands between Java/Borneo and Papua form a mixed zone, where both types occur, known as Wallacea.

The shallow waters of the Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for the world's marine ecosystems, where coral, fish and molluscs abound. The whale shark can be found in the South China Sea.

The trees and other plants of the region are tropical; in some countries where the mountains are tall enough, temperate-climate vegetation can be found. These rainforest areas are currently being logged-over, especially in Borneo.

While Southeast Asia is rich in flora and fauna, Southeast Asia is facing severe deforestation which causes habitat loss for various endangered species such as orangutan and the Sumatran tiger. At the same time, haze has been a regular occurrence. The worst regional haze occurred in 1998 in which multiple countries were covered with thick haze. In reaction, several countries in Southeast Asia signed the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution in order to combat haze pollution.

[edit] Economy

The region is also one of the most productive in manufacturing microprocessors. Reserves of oil are also present in the region.

[edit] Population

Southeast Asia has an area of approx. 4,000,000 km² (1.6 million sq miles). As of 2004, more than 593 million people lived in the region, more than a fifth of them (125 million) on the Indonesian island of Java, the most densely populated large island in the world. The distribution of the religions and people is diverse in Southeast Asia and varies by country. Some 30 million Overseas Chinese also live in Southeast Asia, most prominently in Christmas Island, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand, and also, as the Hoa, in Vietnam.

[edit] Ethnic groups

See also: Austronesian people, Chinese ethnic groups, Eurasian (mixed ancestry), Filipino people, Malay people, Negrito, Tai peoples, and Southeast Asian American

Southeast Asians are primarily of Asiatic stock, contradicting the misconception that the inhabitants of archipelagic Southeast Asia are Pacific Islanders. According to a recent Stanford genetic study, the Southeast Asian population is far from being homogeneous. Although primarily descendants of Austronesian, Tai, and Mon-Khmer-speaking immigrants who migrated from Southern China during the Bronze Age and Iron Age, there are overlays of Arab, Chinese, Indian, European, Polynesian and Papuan/Melanesian genes. The Philippines, Malaysia, and Singapore have substantial Eurasian populations.

Hassanal Bolkiah, sultan of Brunei.

Former East Timorese prime minister Mari Alkatiri, of Arabic origin.

Lee Hsien Loong, incumbent Singaporean prime minister.

Protester in Bangkok, Thailand.

The ethnic composition for each country is as follows:

Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Indians (69%), Nicobarese (29%), Andamanese (0.9%), Shompen (0.1%), Others (1%)
Brunei	Malay (69%), Chinese (15%), Indigenous Bruneians (including Bajau, Kedayan )(6%), Others (10%)
Cambodia	Khmer (82%), Vietnamese (12%), Cham (4%), Others (including Khmer Loeu) (2%)
Christmas Island	Chinese (70%), Europeans (20%), Malay (10%)
Cocos (Keeling) Islands	Malay (80%), Europeans (20%)
East Timor	Tetun (10%), Mambae (8%), Makasae (8%), Tukudede (6%), Bunak (5%), Galoli (5%), Kemak (5%), Fataluku (3%), Baikeno (2%), Others (48%)
Indonesia	Javanese (41.7%), Sundanese (15.4%), Malay (3.4%), Madurese (3.3%), Batak (3.0%), Minangkabau (2.7%), Betawi (2.5%), Buginese (2.5%), Bantenese (2.1%), Banjarese (1.7%), Balinese (1.5%), Sasak (1.3%), Makassarese (1.0%), Cirebon (0.9%), Chinese (0.9%), Others (15%)
Laos	Lao (50%), other Lao Loum (14%), Lao Theung (Kammu, Katang) (23%), Lao Soung (Akha, Hmong, Yao) (9%), Chinese (3%), Vietnamese (2%)
Malaysia	Malay (52%), Chinese (30%), Indians (8%), Indigenous Malaysians (including Orang Asli) (7%), Others (3%)
Myanmar	Bamar (68%), Shan (10%), Kayin (7%), Rakhine (4%), Chinese (3%), Mon (2%), South Asians (2%), Others (including Anglo-Burmese, Anglo-Indians, Chin, Kachin, Kayah)(4%)
Philippines	Bisaya (39%), Tagalog (17%), Ilocano (10%), Moro (5%), Bicolano (4%), Kapampangan (3%), Pangasinan (2%), Chinese (2%), Spanish (2%), Philippine tribes (including Bajau, Igorot, Lumad, Mangyan, Negrito, Palawan tribes) (8%), Other Philippine groups (including Chabacano, Ibanag, Ivatan) (5%), Others (mostly Blacks, Americans, Arabs, Europeans, Indonesians, Japanese, Jews, Koreans, Desis, Spaniards) (3%)
Singapore	Chinese (77%), Malay (14%), Indian (8%), Others (including Arab, Eurasian) (1%)
Thailand	Thai (41%), Isan (or Laotian) (34%) Chinese (14%), Malay (4%), Khmer (2%), Others (5%)
Vietnam	Vietnamese (86%), French (2%), Japanese (1.2%), Others (Cham, South African, Brazilian, Eurasian, Amerasian, and mountain groups (Montagnard): Degar, Mang, Meo, Muong, Tai) (9%)

[edit] Distinct minorities

[edit] Negritos

The Negritos include the Aeta, Ati and at least 25 other tribes of the Philippines, the Semang of the Malay peninsula, the Mani of Thailand and 12 Andamanese tribes of the Andaman Islands. The Malay term for them is orang asli, or original people. They are likely the indigenous people of Southeast Asia, including Western New Guinea. Pygmy-sized, they are numerically and physically among the smallest as well as among the least-known of all living human groups. The Negrito peoples have one of the purest genetic pools of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) among anyone in humankind so their mtDNA serves as a baseline in studying Genetic Drift.^[4]

[edit] Peranakans

The Peranakan are a unique Straits Chinese community that are found mostly in Malaysia and Singapore, though many can also be found in Indonesia. Large communities of the Peranakans can be found in Penang and Malacca (Malaysia) and Singapore. They have roots tracing to that of Hokkien from Fujian province, Southern China who intermarried with non Muslims Indonesian people like the Bataks and Balinese. Others say they were descendants of servants of Hang Li Poh who intermarried with locals. They retained the names, religions and cultures of their Chinese fathers while absorbing the language, food and culture of their Malay mothers.

[edit] Filipino Mestizos

Filipino Mestizos are Filipinos of part-foreign descent that are found mostly in the Philippines. 444 years under Western rule and influence have had a powerful effect on the Filipinos, especially on the culture and ancestry. About 3.6% of all Filipinos are part-European and/or part-American. Approximately 5% of all Filipinos are of mixed Filipino and Chinese descent. They retained most of their ancestors' culture, and most of them continue to speak English. Filipino Mestizos, particularly the Chinese Mestizos, are leading in the business sector, while Filipino Mestizos of mixed European or American descent are disproportionately overrepresented in the entertainment industry.

[edit] Religions

See also: Theravada, Hinduism in Southeast Asia, and Islam in Southeast Asia

Countries in Southeast Asia practise many different religions. Mainland SEA countries, that is, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Viet Nam, practise predominantly Buddhism. Singapore is also predominantly Buddhist. In the Malay Archipelago, people living in Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei practise mainly Islam. Christianity is predominant in the Philippines, Eastern Indonesia and East Timor. The Philippines has the largest Roman Catholic population followed by Vietnam, both ex-colonies of European powers.

The religious composition for each country is as follows. Some values are taken from the CIA Factbook: ^[5]

Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Animism, Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism
Brunei	Islam (67%), Buddhism (13%), Christianity (10%), Indigenous beliefs and others (10%)
Cambodia	Theravada Buddhism (93%), Animism and others (7%)
Christmas Island	Buddhism (36%), Islam (25%), Christianity (18%), Taoism (15%), other (6%).
Cocos (Keeling) Islands	Sunni Islam (80%), Others (20%)
East Timor	Roman Catholicism (90%), Islam (5%), Protestant (3%), Others (Buddhist, Hindu) (2%)
Indonesia	Islam (88%), Protestant (5%), Roman Catholicism (3%) Hinduism (2%), Buddhism (1%), Others (1%)
Laos	Theravada Buddhism (60%), Animism and others (40%)
Malaysia	Islam (60.4%), Mahayana Buddhism (19.2%), Christianity (9.1%), Hinduism (6.1%), Animism (5.2%)
Myanmar	Theravada Buddhism (89%), Islam (4%), Christianity (4%), Animism (1%), Others (2%)
Philippines	Roman Catholicism (70%), Islam (5%), Evangelical (2.8%), Iglesia ni Cristo (2.2%), Aglipayan (2%), other Christian (15.5%), Others (Animism, Buddhism, Nonreligious) (2.5%)
Singapore	Buddhism (42.5%), Islam (15%), Taoism (8%), Roman Catholism (4.5%), other Christian (10%), Hinduism (4%), Nonreligious (15%), Other (1%)
Thailand	Theravada Buddhism (94.6%), Islam (4.6%), Others (1%)
Viet Nam	Mahayana Buddhism (78%), Theravada Buddhism (5%), (Roman Catholicism (7%), Cao Dai (2%), Protestant (1%), Others (Animism, Hoa Hao, Islam, Nonreligious) (7%)

Religions and peoples are diverse in Southeast Asia and not one country is homogeneous. In the world's most populous Muslim nation, Indonesia, Hinduism is dominant on islands such as Bali. Christianity also predominates in Philippines, Papua and Timor. Pockets of Hindu population can also be found around Southeast Asia in Singapore, Malaysia etc. Garuda (Sanskrit: Garuḍa), the phoenix who is the mount (vahanam) of Vishnu, is a national symbol in both Thailand and Indonesia; in the Philippines, gold images of Garuda have been found on Palawan; gold images of other Hindu gods and goddesses have also been found on Mindanao. Balinese Hinduism is somewhat different from Hinduism practised elsewhere, as Animism and local culture is incorporated into it. Christians can also be found throughout Southeast Asia; they are in the majority in East Timor and the Philippines, Asia's largest Christian nation. In addition, there are also older tribal religious practices in remote areas of Sarawak in East Malaysia and Papua in eastern Indonesia. In Myanmar, Sakka (Indra) is revered as a nat. In Vietnam, Mahayana Buddhism is practiced, which is influenced by native animism but with strong emphasis on Ancestor Worship.

[edit] Languages

See also: Austric languages, Austro-Asiatic languages, Austronesian languages, Hmong-Mien languages, Sino-Tibetan languages, and Tai-Kadai languages

Each of the languages have been influenced by cultural pressures due to trade and historical colonization as well. Thus, for example, a Filipino, educated in English and Tagalog, as well as in his native tongue (ex., Visayan), might well speak another language, such as Japanese for economic reasons; a Malaysian might well speak Chinese as well as English, again for economic reasons.

The language composition for each country is as follows: (The official languages have been bolded.)

Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Hindi, Bengali, Malayalam, Telugu, Punjabi, Tamil, Nicobarese, English, Shompen , Andamanese languages
Brunei	Malay, Chinese dialects, indigenous Borneian dialects
Cambodia	Khmer, Vietnamese, Chamic dialects
Christmas Island	English , Chinese and Malay
Cocos (Keeling) Islands	English and Cocos Malay
East Timor	Tetun, Portuguese, Mambae, Makasae, Tukudede, Bunak, Galoli, Kemak, Fataluku, Baikeno, other Timorese dialects
Indonesia	Indonesian, Acehnese, Batak, Sundanese, Javanese, Sasak, Tetum of Timor, Dayak, Minahasa, Toraja, Buginese, Halmahera, Ambonese, Ceramese, and several Papuanese languages. Chinese dialects like Hokkien, Hakka and Mandarin and Dutch, 583 others.
Laos	Lao, Vietnamese, Hmong, Miao, Mien, Dao, Shan, and other Tibeto-Burman derived languages
Malaysia	Malay, English, Chinese dialects, Tamil, other Indian languages, various indigenous languages (of the Orang Asli and natives of Sabah and Sarawak).
Myanmar	Burmese, English, Shan dialects, Karen dialects, Rakhine, Kachin, Chin, Chinese dialects (Hokkien, Cantonese), Mon, Indian languages, hilltribe languages
Philippines	Filipino, English, Tagalog, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Waray, Ilocano, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, Bicolano, Maranao, Maguindanao, Tausug, Kinaray-a, Chabacano, Lán-lâng-oē (Philippine Hokkien), Chinese, Vietnamese, other Philippine languages and dialects, Spanish and its dialects and creoles, other Chinese dialects, Indian languages, Arabic dialects
Singapore	Mandarin Chinese, Malay, Tamil, English, other Chinese dialects, other Indian languages, Arabic dialects.
Thailand	Thai, Chinese dialects, Vietnamese, Isan, Shan, Lue, Phutai, Khmer, Mon, Mein, Hmong, Karen, Jawi, Malay
Viet Nam	Vietnamese, French (creole), Cham, Russian, Tay, Muong, Nung, Hmong, Tai Dam, and others.

[edit] Culture

See also: Southeast Asian cinema, Southeast Asian Games, and Southeast Asian music

Rice paddy agriculture has existed in Southeast Asia for thousands of years, ranging across the subregion. Some dramatic examples of these rice paddies populate the Banaue Rice Terraces in the mountains ofLuzon in the Philippines, and in Indonesia. Maintenance of these paddies is very labor-intensive. The rice paddies are well-suited to the monsoon climate of the region.

Stilt houses can be found all over Southeast Asia, from Thailand and Laos, to Borneo, to Luzon in the Philippines, to Papua New Guinea.

The peoples of Southeast Asia are trained to carry burdens on their heads; it was a common sight to see a child balancing a small object like a bowl on her head, in distinction to her mother or aunt balancing a much larger load.

The region has diverse metalworking. This include weaponry, such as the distinctive Kris, and musical instruments, such as the the gamelan.

[edit] Influences

The region's chief cultural influences have been from either China or India or both, with Vietnam considered by far the most Chinese-influenced.

As a rule, the peoples who ate with their fingers were more likely influenced by the culture of India, for example, than the culture of China, where the peoples first ate with chopsticks; tea, as a beverage, can be found across the region. The fish sauces distinctive to the region tend to vary.

[edit] The Arts

Dance in much of Southeast Asia also includes movement of the hands, as well as the feet. Puppetry and shadow plays were also a favoured form of entertainment in past centuries. The Arts and Literature in some of South East Asia is quite influenced by Hinduism brought to them centuries ago.

In Indonesia and Malaysia, though they converted to Islam, they retained many forms of Hindu influenced practices, Cultures, Arts and Literature. An example will be the Wayang Kulit (Shadow Puppet) and literatures like the Ramayana. This is also true for mainland South East Asia (excluding Vietnam). Dance movements, Hindu gods, Arts were also fused into Thai, Khmer, Laotian and Burmese cultures.

In Vietnam, the Vietnamese share many cultural similarities with the Chinese. Examples would be the national costume of Vietnam, Ao Dai influenced by the Qi pao (Cheong Sam) of China the Mahayana form of Buddhism which the Chinese and Vietnamese alike adhere to, architecture, traditional theatre and music, and so on.

[edit] Music

Gamelan instruments are comon in the region. these consists of gongs and other tonal and percussive music. Most of the traditional music is based on a pentatonic scale.

[edit] Writing

Main articles: Baybayin, Jawi (script), S.E.A. Write Award, and Thai alphabet

The history of Southeast Asia has led to a wealth of different authors from both within and without writing about the region.

Originally, Indians were the ones who taught the native inhabitants about. This is shown through Brahmic forms of writing present in the region such as the Balinese script shown on split palm leaf called lontar below:

The antiquity of this form of writing extends before the invention of paper 100, in China. Note each palm leaf section was only several lines, written longitudinally across the leaf, and bound by twine to the other sections. The outer portion was decorated. The alphabets of Southeast Asia tended to be abugidas, until the arrival of the Europeans, who used words that also ended in consonants, not just vowels. Other forms of official documents, which did not use paper, included Javanese copperplate scrolls. This would have been more durable in the tropical climate of Southeast Asia.

[edit] See also

• Southeast Asian Capitals
• Southeast Asian studies
• History of Southeast Asia
• Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)
• Japanese foreign policy in Southeast Asia
• S.E.A. Write Award
• Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia)
• List of Southeast Asian mountains

[edit] References

• Tiwari, Rajnish (2003): Post-crisis Exchange Rate Regimes in Southeast Asia, Seminar Paper, University of Hamburg. (PDF)

[edit] External links

• Topography of Southeast Asia in detail (PDF)
• CityMayors.com article
• Southeast Asian Archive at the University of California, Irvine.
• "Documenting the Southeast Asian Refugee Experience", exhibit at the University of California, Irvine, Library.

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