Sources of fantasy

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Fantasy

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Though the fantasy genre in its modern sense is less than two centuries old, its sources have a long and distinguished history. Elements of the supernatural and the fantastic were an element of literature from its beginning.

In The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, John Clute and John Grant separated the concept of fantasy as such from that of taproot texts, works that are sources for fantasy, but not themselves fantasy.^[1]

Contents 1 Areas of interest 1.1 Ancient Near Eastern mythology 1.2 Indian mythology 1.3 Greco-Roman mythology 1.4 East Asian mythology 1.5 Medieval European myths and legends 1.5.1 Germanic 1.5.2 Norse 1.5.3 Celtic legend 1.5.4 Other 2 References

[edit] Areas of interest

[edit] Ancient Near Eastern mythology

The Epic of Gilgamesh was written over generations following the supposed reign of King Gilgamesh, and is seen as a mythologized version of his life. This figure is sometimes an influence and, more rarely, sometimes a figure in modern fantasy.^[2]

Many have suggested that Egyptian mythology was regarded as mainly allegorical during at least part of its history.^{[citation needed]} The reason for this is that the gods and goddesses of Egyptian mythology were not seen as fixed figures, but as manifestations of a single divinity.^{[citation needed]} Tales of origins and other myths were therefore subject to change for the purposes of relating moral messages or discussing various aspects of the world's nature. At times gods and goddesses could even be deconstructed or combined with other deities toward such ends. Thus, some might argue that Egyptian mythology differs from modern fantasy fiction only in that its primary function was philosophical and religious in nature, rather than simple entertainment.^{[citation needed]}

Perhaps because of Tolkien's popularity, a little known religion exerts an important, although indirect influence on fantasy.^{[citation needed]} The ancient Persian religion of Zoroastrianism is characterised by far-reaching dualism and spiritual and material battles of the good spirit Ahura Mazda and evil Ahriman. These are described in the Avesta texts, the earliest of which was the Gathas, composed by Zoroaster. Depictions of such wars proved irresistible to many modern fantasy authors.^{[citation needed]}

The Bible, which had a great and enduring impact on Western Culture and its later works of fiction, also influenced fantasy literature.^{[citation needed]} The influence tends to be hidden, however, since many authors are unwilling to risk controversy which can be caused by the use of Bible in fantasy literature.^{[citation needed]}

• Epic of Gilgamesh, by an unknown author (3rd millennium BCE)
• Enuma Elish (When on High), by an unknown author (18th century BCE)
• Gathas, by Zoroaster (10th century BCE)
• The Book of Genesis, attributed to Moses (440 BCE)

[edit] Indian mythology

India has a long tradition of fantastical stories and characters. The Rig-Veda, the oldest text on Vedic mythology, was mostly religious in nature but had many elements found in modern fantasy fiction.^{[citation needed]} There have been modern works of fantasy fiction, such as RG Veda, that were influenced by Vedic mythology.^{[citation needed]}

Hindu mythology was an evolution of the earlier Vedic mythology and had many more fantastical stories and characters, particularly in the Indian epics, such as the Mahabharata by Vyasa, and the Ramayana by Valmiki.

The Ramayana was influential throughout the Far East, particularly in South East Asia where it became a national epic. The Ramayana also influenced Chinese fantasy, such as the character of Sun Wukong being influenced by Hanuman.^{[citation needed]}

The Mahabharata was one of the longest fantasy fiction ever written.^{[citation needed]} With its vast philosophical depth and sheer magnitude, the Mahabharata includes large amounts of Hindu mythology, cosmological stories of the gods and goddesses, philosophical parables aimed at students of Hindu philosophy, self-fulfilling prophecies, supernatural abilities, and epic battles. The Naga race, a common element in modern fiction, were also first featured in the Mahabharata. Modern adaptations of the Mahabharata include an Indian TV series by B. R. Chopra and a European mini-series by Peter Brook.^{[citation needed]}

The Panchatantra (Fables of Bidpai) was influential throughout the Old World.^{[citation needed]} It used various animal fables and magical tales to illustrate the central Indian principles of political science through an inter-woven series of stories and stories within stories, which were sometimes three or four layers deep, and then unexpectedly snapping shut in irregular rhythms to sustain attention. The Hitopadesha was another famous collection of fantasy fables.

The Baital Pachisi (Vikram and the Vampire) is a collection of various fantasy tales set within a frame story about an encounter between King Vikramāditya and a Vetala, one of the earliest mythical creatures resembling a vampire. According to Richard Francis Burton and Isabel Burton, the Baital Pachisi "culminated in the Arabian Nights" and it "inspired the Golden Ass of Apuleius, Boccacio's Decamerone, the Pentamerone, and all that class of facetious fictitious literature."^{[citation needed]}

Other Indian fantasy works include the The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature, written in South India. One of these epics, Manimekalai, as well as earlier Indian literature such as such as Kālidāsa's poem Meghaduta, the dialogue of the Yakshaprasnah ("Questions of the Yaksha"), contain some of the earliest tales about fairies, known as Yaksha, who often had a dual personality. On the one hand, a Yaksha may be an inoffensive nature-fairy, associated with woods and mountains; but there is a much darker version of the Yaksha, which is a kind of cannibalistic ogre, ghost or demon that haunts the wilderness and waylays and devours travelers, similar to the rakṣasas. The Yaksha are often featured in Japanese fantasy (transliterated as "Yasha" in Japanese) and as well as several Western fantasy works, such as The Last Vampire, where the original vampire's name is Yaksha. Various Hindu gods such as Shiva and Kali are also featured in various modern fantasy works.^{[citation needed]}

• Rig-Veda (14th or 15th century BCE)
• Jaya, by Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa (7th or 8th century BCE)
• Bharata, by Vaisampayana (6th or 7th century BCE)
• Mahabharata, by Ugrasrava Sauti (5th or 6th century BCE)
• Ramayana, by Valmiki (5th or 6th century BCE)
• Panchatantra, by Vishnu Sarma (3nd century BCE)
• Vikram and The Vampire (1st century BCE)
• Hitopadesha (1st century)
• The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature (2nd to 5th centuries):
  • Cilappatikaram, by Prince Ilango Adigal
  • Manimekalai, by Seethalai Saathanar
  • Civaka Cintamani, by Tirutakakatevar
  • Valayapati, by a Jaina Tamil poet
  • Kundalakesi, by a Buddhist Tamil poet

[edit] Greco-Roman mythology

Classical mythology is replete with fantastical stories and characters, the best known (and perhaps the most relevant to modern fantasy) being the works of Homer.^[1]

At least some ancient Greek authors were known to express open disbelief in the existence of many of the creatures that featured in Greek mythology, while some of the Greek philosophers apparently doubted the literal truthfulness of ancient Greek religion.^{[citation needed]} While it is probable that the majority of the ancient Greeks held a belief in the actuality of the fantastic, there existed amongst the ancient Greek literati people who viewed the factual accuracy of the mythology to be either secondary to or at least separate from the value and meaning of the myths themselves; thus, there was a sense of willing suspension of disbelief (as opposed to actual belief) in the fantastic.^{[citation needed]} Such suspension of disbelief was also necessary for appreciating many known original works, particularly dramatic presentations, in classical antiquity (see fourth wall).^{[citation needed]}

The above mentioned works, although they included many fantastic elements, differ from modern fantasy as to their literary genre.{{fact} They were written in verse, and belong either to epic poetry or drama.^{[citation needed]} In that respect there is a greater similarity between modern fantasy and ancient novel. Works of Apuleius and Lucian of Samosata were created in the mature period of classical civilisation, which often resembled modernity, for example in its individualistic attitude to religion.

• Odyssey, Homer (7th or 8th century BCE)
• Iliad, Homer (7th or 8th century BCE)
• Aeneid, Virgil (1st century CE)
• The Golden Ass, Lucius Apuleius (Date?)
• True History, Lucian of Samosata (Date?)

[edit] East Asian mythology

Chinese mythology is a collection of cultural history, folktales, and religions that have been passed down in oral or written form. There are several aspects to Chinese mythology, including creation myths and legends and myths concerning the founding of Chinese culture and the Chinese state. Like many mythologies, some people believe it to be a factual recording of history. Many myths are better known in the US by their Japanese versions.

The most well known fantasy fiction from China was Journey to the West by Wu Cheng'en, which was later influential in works of modern fantasy fiction.^{[citation needed]} One of its characters, Sun Wukong, better known in the West as Monkey or Son Goku, has become a cultural icon throughout the Far East, and is also well known in the West.^{[citation needed]} Other earlier examples of Chinese fantasy includes Shan Hai Jing.^{[citation needed]}

Japanese mythology is a complex system of beliefs. The Shinto pantheon alone boasts a collection of more than 8,000,000 kami (Japanese for "gods" or "spirits"). Due to the influence of the ancient Chinese civilization, much of Japanese mythology and religion originated from the mainland, though there are still many myths uniquely Japanese. It embraces Shinto and Buddhist traditions as well as agricultural-based folk beliefs.

The Japanese novel The Tale of Genji contains some of the earliest ghost stories, while Konjaku Monogatarishu covers various fantasy tales from India, China and Japan which depict encounters between human beings and the supernatural, such as oni and tengu. Other fantasy tales feature the Yasha (from Sanskrit "Yaksha"). These tales were influential in modern Japanese fantasy, as well as modern Western fantasy.^{[citation needed]}

• Shan Hai Jing (2nd century BCE)
• The Tale of Genji (11th century)
• Konjaku Monogatarishu (12th century)
• Otogizoshi (14th or 15th century)
• Journey to the West, by Wu Cheng'en (16th century)
• Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, by Pu Songling (17th century)
• Yotsuya Kaidan (19th century)

[edit] Medieval European myths and legends

Medieval European sources of fantasy occurred primarily in epic poetry and in the Fornaldarsagas, Norse and Icelandic sagas, both of which are based on ancient oral tradition. The influence of these works on the German Romantics, William Morris, and J. R. R. Tolkien means that their influence on later fantasy has been large.^[3]

[edit] Germanic

The story of Beowulf was of particular interest, as the events of the story take place roughly four hundred years before the writing of the text. The characters in the story are unalloyed Pagans, whereas the author(s) is clearly Christian. A story about a past society in which a brave hero vanquishes dangerous monsters, placed within the framework of (what was then) contemporary society's beliefs and ideals, is a formula that has become an instant indicator of fantasy fiction in the years since. Though the story of Beowulf was by no means the first to do this, many of its presumably more original elements have also had huge impacts on the fantasy genre. Grendel's attacks on the Heorot, for example, established the formula of later horror stories, and this portion of the tale can be seen as precursory to dark fantasy. Grendel was also the prototypical orc, inspiring J. R. R. Tolkien's race of the same name and the majority of subsequent incarnations.

• Beowulf, Anonymous (1000)

[edit] Norse

Beowulf was part of the Germanic legends, most prominently preserved in the Fornaldarsagas, literally tales of times past, or Legendary sagas. They were Norse sagas which unlike the Icelandic sagas take place before the colonization of Iceland, often based on older norse poems, such as those found in the Norse epic poem, the Elder Edda, although most of these poems have now been lost. There are however, some exceptions, such as Yngvars saga víðförla, which takes place in the 11th century.

The setting is Scandinavia, but occasionally it moves temporarily to more distant and exotic locations. There are also very often mythological elements, such as gods, dwarves, elves, dragons, giants and magic swords. The heroes often embark on dangerous quests where they fight the forces of evil, dragons, witchkings, barrow-wights, and rescue fair maidens.

Many or most of the sagas are based on distant historic events and this is evident in cases where there are corroborating sources, such as Göngu-Hrólfs saga, Ragnars saga loðbrókar, Yngvars saga víðförla and Völsunga saga. In the case of Hervarar saga the names in the Gothic setting indicate a historic basis, and the latter parts of the saga are still used as a historic source for Swedish history. They often contain very old Germanic matter, such as the Hervarar saga and the Völsunga saga which contains poetry about Sigurd that did not find its way into the Poetic Edda and which would otherwise have been lost. Other sagas deal with heroes such as Ragnar Lodbrok, Starkad, Orvar-Odd, Hagbard and Signy. The Völsunga saga, the Hervarar saga, and Hrólfs saga kraka, among others are believed to be based on historical events during the migration of the Huns and Germanic tribes at the time of the fall of the Roman Empire, based on similarities to historical documents and oral tradition from other parts of Europe, such as the Nibelungenlied and Beowulf.

The starting point of the fornaldarsagas' influence on the creation of the Fantasy genre is the publication, in 1825, of the most famous Swedish literary work Frithjof's saga, which was based on the Friðþjófs saga ins frœkna, and it became an instant success in England and Germany. It is said to have been translated twenty-two times into English, twenty times into German, and once at least into every European language, including modern Icelandic in 1866. Their influence on authors, such as J. R. R. Tolkien, William Morris and Poul Anderson and on the subsequent modern fantasy genre is considerable, and can perhaps not be overstated.

Also noteworthy are the German epic, the Nibelungenlied.^{[citation needed]} The former, based on the same ancient legends as the Volsunga saga and many poems of the Elder Edda, inspired Wagner's Der Ring Des Nibelungen, which can be considered fantasy in its own right.^{[citation needed]}

• Poetic Edda, Anonymous
• Volsunga saga, Anonymous
• Nibelungenlied, Anonymous
• Hervarar saga, Anonymous

[edit] Celtic legend

Celtic folklore and legend has been an inspiration for many fantasy works. The separate folklore of Ireland, Wales, and Scotland has sometimes been used indiscriminately for "Celtic" fantasy, sometimes with great effect; other writers have distinguished to use a single source.^[4]

The Welsh tradition has been particularly influential, owing to its connection to King Arthur and its collection in a single work, the epic the Mabinogion.^[4]

The Irish Ulster Cycle and Fenian Cycle have also been plentifully mined for fantasy.^[4]

Scottish tradition is less used, perhaps because of the spurious nature of the Ossian cycle, a nineteenth century fraud claiming to have much older sources.^[4]

• Mabinogion, Anonymous

[edit] Other

The Finnish epic, the Kalevala, although not published until the 19th century, is compiled from oral tradition dating back to this period, and perhaps even earlier, is also considered a source of inspiration for Tolkien.^{[citation needed]}

• Kalevala, Elias Lonnrot

[edit] References