Solon

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Solon (Greek: Σολων,^[1] ca. 638 BC–558 BC) was a famous Athenian statesman, lawmaker, and Lyric poet.

Solon first achieved prominence as a philosopher, but, perceiving that Athens faced many problems, chose to enter politics. Beside being quite poor, the city was in the middle of a civil war as a consequence of an oppressive financial system imposed by a few wealthy citizens.

Solon's main quality was that, although he was of the patrician class by birth, he was not wealthy, so while the rich did not perceive him as a commoner, the poor did not perceive him as an oppressor. Consequently, by popular request, Solon was appointed Eponymous Archon, and given the task of reforming the traditional political system. Eventually he revamped most aspects of Athenian life, both modifying the code of laws and writing a definitive Constitution.

He said that he "stood with a strong shield before both parties, the common people and the powerful, and allowed neither to win an unfair victory". Thus his law code was not biased towards either class, and the common Athenian was integrated into his Constitution, which is considered the first foreshadowing of the modern bicameral parliamentary system in history.

These democratic reforms were ultimately overturned in a coup, and the Solonian Constitution was revoked. His code of civil laws survived, however.

Contents 1 Early life 2 Merchant 3 His Poetry 4 Being among the Greek Wise Men 5 Pleading for Salamis 6 Political career 7 Chief Archon 8 Traveling for Ten Years 9 Returning to Athens 10 His Death 11 Accomplishments 11.1 Politics 11.2 Pederasty 12 Trivia 13 Editions 14 Notes 15 See also 16 External links

[edit] Early life

Solon was born in 638 BC in Athens. He was son of Execestides, descended from Codrus, who had been the last King of Athens. Solon's mother was cousin to Peisistratos' mother, so both Solon and Peisistratos were friends since childhood. However, although Solon's family was among the Athenian nobles, they only possessed moderate amounts of fortune and power.^[2]

[edit] Merchant

Initially, Solon worked as a foreign merchant. Beside any other personal motivation which could have driven him into this activity, Solon was eager to learn things. Indeed, this activity had quite a good reputation because it allowed people to civilize barbaric tribes, to befriend kings, and to learn many things. For these reasons, many important Athenians engaged trade.^[3]

[edit] His Poetry

Solon began writing poetry for his own entertainment, although he introduced a philosophical element. The poetry reflected Solon's political activities, instructing Athens about the best political course under a variety of circumstances. By his poems, Solon expressed reluctance, for money, because:

"Both types of people are equally rich.

"Whereas some have Gold, broad acres, corn, and wine;

"the other people have clothes, food, wife, and youthful strength."

Also, Solon wrote:

"I desire wealth, which isn't obtained, by deception,

"because people, whose money is basely gained, end cursed."^[4]

[edit] Being among the Greek Wise Men

Solon was among the greatest men of the Seven Sages of Greece. They met mostly at at Apollo's temple, Delphi, which was central to Greece. Mainly, the Wise Men formulated the maxims which interpreted the Greek Pythias' sayings. At that time, another important Wise Man was Thales of Miletus.^[5]

[edit] Pleading for Salamis

Already, Athens had surrendered Salamis Island to Megara, after years of bloody war. The Athenians were so tired that a law forbade any Athenian to suggest warring again or the death penalty would be suffered. However, Solon noted that many youngsters were eager to fight so, feigning insanity before his family by political fear, he began writing a poem, which urged recapturing Salamis. After it was finished, Solon rushed to the marketplace where he read the poem, before a crowd. Afterward, his friends congratulated him. Peisistratos also improvised a speech, which stirred the attending people. Consequently, abrogating the old law, they renewed the war and Solon was named the expedition's leader. Solon captured a Megarian vessel and it was boarded by concealed Greek soldiers who struck Salamis city by surprise. Among the commanders, Peisistratos was. After his victory, Solon built a temple which worshipped Ares, at Skiradion hill, at which the Athenians had gathered victoriously. However, Megara insisted on Spartan mediation. After agreeing to this, Solon defended the Athenian claim, winning the dispute in court. Consequently, Salamis was given to Athens and Solon gained reputation and power.^[6]

[edit] Political career

Subsequently, from Delphi, Solon called for retaliation, against Kirra, which had offended Delphi's temple. All Greece was stirred by this request although the military campaign wasn't led by Solon, being led instead by Alcmaeon.^[7]

By his already overwhelming political power, Solon resolved the Cylon crisis, which had divided Athens, into two factions. The nine Athenian Archons had repressed Cylon's revolutionary fellows so bloodily that the horrified Athenians believed that these Archons were evilly accursed. Whilst Cylon's party was regaining popular support, Solon mustered the noblest Athenians and, by his great reputation, Solon prevailed politically against the accused Archon's stand, organizing a public trial, with a 300 individual jury --which was picked, from the Athenian cream--. The Archons were found guilty. The sentence stipulated that the living Archons had to leave Attica whereas the dead ones had to be reburied abroad.^[8]

Meanwhile, Megara counterattacked, recapturing both Nisaea and Salamis.^[9]

Additionally, the Athenians believed that the urban center was suffering much bad religious experience, among which examples were both mystical terrors and apparitions. For purification, people resorted to Epimenides. He became Solon's friend, assisting in his legislation. They decided both softening the Athenian rites and building more temples throughout Athens. Thus, the Athenians would begin dedicating rather to political duties, accordingly with the law. These reforms were quite successful.^[10]

[edit] Chief Archon

Athens was submerged in a serious crisis. There was great unrest about the loan system, which was ruled by unscrupulous wealthy creditors. From their annual revenues, all farmers earmarked a sixth to their creditors. A better land redistribution was needed. In Athens, the poor people were usually sold as slaves abroad if they didn't pay their loans. Simultaneously, the nation wanted to agree on a Constitution but each Athenian political party desired a different government system, ranging from democracy, to oligarchy, including mixed systems. Solon described this chaotic political situation:

"If the state might be either disturbed or upset;

"Athens won't be able, either to reconstitute or to reorganize."^[11]

People believed that Solon was the balanced political figure for reforming since he was neither a repressive rich Athenian nor was he poor. Thus, in 594 BC, after Archon Philombrotus, Solon was named Eponymous Archon, of Attica. Indeed, all Athenians were so enthusiastic that people began requesting that Solon might be made king. Though, --unfalteringly-- Solon refused, explaining that

"although monarchy is a pleasant place; no way out exists."^[12]

Solon's first reforms spurned the traditional Athenian loan system. He softened its general terms and --henceforth-- he forbade that people's lives guaranteed the contract. Accordingly, the interest rates were reduced by the "Relief from Burden" --Seisachtheia--. For this, Solon enlarged both the Athenian measure system and its currency's value. Now, a mina represented 100 drachmas, instead of 73 and this reduced all debts' value. Additionally, Solon recalled all Athenians who had been enslaved and exiled, freeing them. However, Solon suffered public humiliation because some of his upper class friends enriched themselves. Knowing the impending reform, they rushed to get credit and bought land. Popularly, these people were called "The Swindlers." Personally, Solon could avoid the scandal, repaying a great loan, which was of 10 talents.^[13]

Initially, the Athenian aristocrats were furious against Solon, by the guarantee nullifying, whereas, simultaneously, the peasants felt deceived for the land hadn't been redistributed. Solon depicted the situation:

"Once, they speculated gaily that good luck might befall, for them.

"Now, they look coldly, toward me.

"They deem that I am the traitor, to them all."

About the land claiming, Solon referred:

"So they came, searching plunder.

"They deemed that endless wealth would be found.

"They dreamed --vainly--.

"Now, they rise an angry din."

However, people began perceiving that the Seisachteia worked and, even, a public sacrifice was performed, honoring the reforms.^[14] Solon's constitution was later called the Solonian Constitution.

After this initial success Athens committed Solon to a reform spate, comprising all Athenian institutions. Solon's first decision was to repeal Draco's laws, which prescribed capital punishment, for virtually any crime. Solon limited capital punishment only for murder convictions.^[15]

Subsequently, Solon ordered a national census, measuring Athens wealth. Already, the Athenian population was divided, into four classes, constituting a Timokratia, which is an oligarchic social system. Solon redistributed political duties more popularly, among these classes:^[16]

• Pentakosiomedimnol
  • "men of 500 bushel"
  • Annually, these people produced 500 bushel --either of dry things or of liquid ones--.
• Hippeis
  • "knights"
  • For war, these people could support both their own equipment and a horse.
  • This was valued, at a 300 bushel production --annually--.
• Zeugital
  • For working, these people had two beasts --minimally--.
  • This was valued, at a 200 bushel production --annually--.
• Thetes
  • These people were manual workers.

N.G.L. Hammond supposes that he instituted a graduated tax upon these upper classes at a rate of 6:3:1, with the lowest class of thetes paying nothing in taxes but being ineligible for elected office.

Solon distributed the Athenian magistracies among the aristocracy, although he integrated the common Athenian, into their Constitution. Solon described this in a poem.

"I gave all needed strength, to the common people.

"Yet, I kept the nobles, with strong power.

"Thus, they are reciprocally shielded, from any violence.

"They can't do wrong, to each other."^[17]

Accordingly, Solon didn't allow that a Thete might be magistrate but a Thete could attend public assembies and a Thete could be juryman. The latter was extremely important because most disputes were settled by jury. Additionally, after a magistrate settled a case, people had a final appeal.^[18]

Solon instituted the Areopagus, which was formed by politicians, who had already been Eponymous Archon. It was the Athenian Senate. However, --simultaneously-- Solon created the Athenian lower chamber, whose name was "Council of the Four Hundred" or Boule. It was constituted by all four Athenian tribes, which sent a hundred men apiece. The lower chamber deliberated about all the issues which would be considered by the Areopagus. It is generally accepted that these institutions were the origin of the modern Occidental democratic system.^[19]

Solon encouraged foreign trade for Attica, which was submerged in poverty. He ruled the Areopagus could inquire about each Athenian's property, punishing any unproductive resource.^[20]

Other issues were:

• regulation of marriages
• regime of copulation, inside marriage
• conduct, toward dead people
• conduct, in public places
• institution of personal testament
• social female conduct
• women's lives, in general
• regulation of filial obligation, to maintain a father economically
• adultery
• prizes, for winners in international sporting contests
• rewards, for killing regional savage animals
• placing of wells, trees, trenches, pits, and industrial hives
• domestic animals
• regime for migrants, who arrived, to live in Athens
• regime for the Athenian community dinning table

Additionally, Solon modified the Athenian calendar.^[21]

Solon ordered that, in effect, his laws had to endure for 100 years and, effectively, they were sworn by all Athenian institutions, both at the Areopagus and at the Agora. The cylinders were kept, in the Acropolis.^[22]

[edit] Traveling for Ten Years

Soon Solon felt harrassed because overmuch Athenian was questioning and criticizing him. As a result, Solon took a 10 year commercial excursion abroad. He expected that, afterward, people would be finally accustomed to his code of laws.^[23] Solon exacted the promise of the city that his constitution would not change unless he were to change it himself. In his travels he visited Egypt, Cyprus and Lydia.

Solon began his trip in Egypt, spending some time at the Nile's outlet. Then, he visited Heliopolis where he discussed philosophy, with Psenophis. Subsequently, at Sais, Solon visited Neith's temple where the local priests, who were quite renowned in Egypt, described the Atlantis' island tale to him. Solon wrote this history as a poem to bring home to Athens. Plato used this manuscript, in his dialogues Timaios and Critias.^[24]

Then, Solon sailed toward Cyprus. A local king, whose name was Philocyprus, received him at his royal capital, which was on the Clarius river. As the city was too congested geografically, Solon suggested that a whole new one be erected elsewhere. Solon oversaw the building. When it was finished, the new city was envied and many individuals wanted to live there. The new royal city was baptized Soloi, after Solon.^[25]

Afterward, Solon was invited to Sardis, Lydia, by King Croesus. The following story is well known, particularly in ancient times. Among other historians, both Herodotus and Plutarch have presented it. Solon walked through the lavishly magnificent palace, with unexcited attitude. At this behavior, Croesus was so surprised that he began blustering, exhibiting all his treasures to Solon. Solon maintained a cool demeanor. Then, Croesus asked Solon whether Solon had known any other person, who had been happier than the Lydian king. Solon told about an Athenian, who had been happy by his own virtuous life, reasoning as follows:

"There are good reasons—first, his city was prosperous, and he had fine sons, and lived to see children born to each of them, and all these children surviving; secondly, he had wealth enough by our standards; and he had a glorious death."

Desperately, the surprised king asked again whether Solon had known another person, excluding this Athenian. Consequently, Solon told a similar Athenian tale. It was about two individuals, who had loved their mother intensely, until death. Ultimately, Croesus asked directly whether Solon considered that the Lydian king was happy or not. Solon responded:

"Heaven endowed the Greeks with moderate gifts. Thus, our wisdom is both cautious and homely cast. It bears neither royal nor magnificent character. Besides, strange things await every man, in the unknown future, and we think that a man has only been happy if his life had a fortunate death."

Croesus was quite angered, although it was recalling this story that Croesus saved himself from execution when his kingdom was overcome by Cyrus, who led the Persians.^[26][27]

[edit] Returning to Athens

Solon returned to Athens, in the 560s BC, and he was received respectfully. However, he found that, again, chaos dominated. Each political party was eager, to overpower its other rivals definitively, by any means. Many people wanted other revolution. Already, Solon was quite aged but, still, he mediated between the three rivaling political leaders. Among them, only Peisistratos showed some interest on Solon's striving. Peisistratos was leading the Highlands political party, Diakril, which congregated mountain people. With them, the Athenian poorer classes were ready, to revolt against the Athenian aristocracy.^[28] Accordingly with Aristotle, Peisistratos was an extreme democrat.^[29]

Early, Solon had detected Peisistratos' tough plans and Solon attempted stopping him. However, Peisistratos did his first move toward revolution, injuring himself. Then, he lied that he had been attacked by political enemies so a personal army may be created. Peisistratos was surrounded by political fellows when Solon said to him:

"Dishonorably, you are imitating Homer's Odysseus but you do this, deceiving your own fellow citizens. Instead, Odysseus had mutilated himself, deceiving the enemy."

Also, Solon said:

"I'm wiser than the Athenians, who don't understand the situation, yet I'm braver than those Athenians, who understand the situation, but don't oppose."^[30]

Effectively, the Highlands party took the Athenian government, overthrowing Solon's constitution by force.^[31] Opposing this, the aged Solon addressed the Agora, against. He reproached the Athenians and one comment was largely remembered, historically.

"In the past, the Athenians would have been able to combat any possible despotic coup. Nowadays, it would be more glorious to depose it whilst it's at its full growth."

However, the fearful Athenians didn't listen.^[32]

In these difficult days, Solon wrote a poem too, reproaching the Athenians.

"By your own cowardice, you are suffering wrong.

"Blame yourselves. Don't blame the gods, for this.

"You have strengthened this tyrant

"so, rightly, you have lost your freedom."

Solon dressed in an armor and he stood on the street, before his home, so all Athenians might resist the government so. Eventually, Solon's friends warned him that Peisistratos might kill him by such insolences.^[33]

Nonetheless, Peisistratos, whose government was rather like a constitutional one,^[34] began dispensing much favor, to Solon. Indeed, Solon's code was kept severely in effect. Even, once during his mandate, the tyrant appeared in the Areopagus, responding a murder accusation.^[35] He showed Solon considerable respect, either out of respect for the older man's wisdom, or out of regard for their former love.^[36]

Thus, --eventually-- Solon became advisor and much suggestion ended even approved by this government.^[37]

[edit] His Death

Accordingly with ancient sources, Solon died during Peisistratos' dominion. This meant a 2 year margin, after the coup.^[38]

During these months, Solon was completely dedicated, to leisure activities. This was reflected in a poem:

"Both Aphrodite and Dionysus are my lone care,

"together with the muses, which charm the human heart."

Among his final projects, the Atlantis' poem was although Solon couldn't finish it, by his extreme age.^[39]

Most ancient writers, among whom Aristotle was, pointed that, after Solon died, his ashes were spread, around Salamis.^[40]

[edit] Accomplishments

[edit] Politics

Solon introduced the trial by jury; military obligations were codified based on class; the Council of the Four Hundred (or Boule) and the Areopagus were established as the main consultative and administrative bodies; he introduced many new laws, especially those covering debt and taxation; he remodeled the calendar; he created a court for the lowest classes called the Heliaia and allowed it to audit those passing from the office of archon for each year; he regulated weights and measures.

Solon also encouraged a growth in industry by offering citizenship to skilled foreign laborers and created a law which ensured fathers, unless farmers, passed on the skills of their profession to their sons. His laws were written onto special wooden cylinders and placed in the Acropolis.

[edit] Pederasty

He is also is credited with being the founder of the pederastic educational tradition in Athens. He composed poetry praising the love of boys and instituted legislation to control abuses against freeborn boys. Specifically, he excluded slaves from the wrestling halls and from pederasty.^[41] According to the later histories of Plutarch and Aelian, Solon had the future Tyrant Peisistratus as an eromenos and later appointed him as a commander in the conquest of Salamis in 590s BC, however Aristotle claims that Peisistratus would have been too young at the time.^[42][43][44]

[edit] Trivia

• Almost, Solon put his laws down as a poem. Indeed, he wrote the first lines, which said:

"To Zeus --who is the great divine Cronus' son--, I pray

"so my laws are favored, by him."^[45]

• Solon wrote his laws onto triangular wooden tables, which folded around an axis.^[46]

• Right after returning from this 10 year trip, Solon spent some time at theaters. There, he met Thespis, who had created the Greek tragedy. To him, Solon questioned whether he was ashamed by telling so many lies, before so many people. Thespis responded that he wasn't for all was a jest. Becoming angered, Solon struck the floor with his cane and he said:

"By praising and approving such jests, soon we will find people, who will be jesting with our businesses."^[47]

• Being Archon, Solon conversed with Anacharsis whilst he was writing his code. The man criticized Solon because, generally, laws were evaded by the most powerful citizens. Solon responded: "Inside a nation, people keep their covenants because nobody would profit if these may be broken. Besides, I have suited my laws so all inhabitants will prefer, abiding by them, instead of breaking them."^[48]

• Into his new constitution, Solon introduced new denominations, which were more polite and which have been universally used thereafter.

"Harlots" were now called "Mistresses"

"Taxes" were called "Contributions"

"Garrisons" were called "Protectors"

"Prison" was called "The House"^[49]

[edit] Editions

Solon's works are preserved only in fragments.

• Martin Litchfield West, Iambi et elegi Graeci ante Alexandrum cantati2 : Callinus. Mimnermus. Semonides. Solon. Tyrtaeus. Minora adespota,, Oxonii: e typographeo Clarendoniano 1972, revised edition 1992 x + 246 pp.
• T. Hudaon-Williams, Early Greek Elegy: Ekegiac Fragments of Callinus, Archilochus, Mimmermus, Tyrtaeus, Solon, Xenophanes, and Others, # Taylor and Francis (1926), ISBN 0824077733.
• Christoph Mülke, Solons politische Elegien und Iamben : (Fr. 1 - 13, 32 - 37 West), Munich (2002), ISBN 3598777264.
• Eberhard Ruschenbusch Nomoi : Die Fragmente d. Solon. Gesetzeswerkes, Wiesbaden : F. Steiner (1966).
• H. Miltner Fragmente / Solon, Vienna (1955)
• Eberhard Preime, Dichtungen : Sämtliche Fragmente / Solon Munich (1940).

[edit] Notes

[edit] See also

• Solonian Constitution
• Seven Sages of Greece
• Seisachtheia
• Boule (ancient Greece)
• Areopagus
• Soli, Cyprus

[edit] External links

• Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Solon
• Re-examining Solon's ideas on sortition for safeguarding democracy

The Works of Plutarch
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