Skinhead

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This article is about a subculture. For a bald head, see baldness.

Skinheads, named after their cropped or shaven heads, are members of a working class subculture that originated in Britain in the 1960s, where they were heavily influenced by the rude boys of the West Indies and the mods of the UK.

In subsequent decades, the skinhead subculture spread to other parts of Europe, North America and other continents. Politically, they range from far-right and racist to far-left and anti-fascist — and everything in between (including apolitical). Fashion-wise, they range from the more cleancut mod-influenced 1960s image to the less-strict punk- and hardcore-influenced styles.

Skinhead with scooter
Skinhead with scooter

Contents

[edit] History

English Skinheads in late 1960s
English Skinheads in late 1960s

[edit] Mod origins

In the late 1950s, Great Britain's entrenched class system limited most working class people's educational, housing, and economic opportunities. However, Britain's post-war economic boom led to an increase in disposable income among many young people. Some of those youths invested in new fashions popularized by American soul groups, British R&B bands, certain movie actors, and Carnaby Street clothing merchants.[1]

These youths became known as the mods, a youth subculture noted for its consumerism — and devotion to fashion, music and scooters.[2] Mods of lesser means made do with practical styles that suited their lifestyle and employment circumstances: steel-toe boots, straight-leg jeans or Sta-Prest trousers, button-up shirts, and braces (called suspenders in the USA). When possible, these working-class mods spent their money on suits and other sharp outfits to wear at dancehalls, where they enjoyed soul, ska, bluebeat and rocksteady music.[3]

[edit] Split with the mods

Around 1965, a schism developed between the peacock mods, who were less violent and always wore the latest expensive clothes, and the hard mods (also known as gang mods), who were identified by their shorter hair and more working-class image.[4] Also known as lemonheads and peanuts, these hard mods became commonly known as skinheads by about 1968.[5]

Their shorter hair may have come about for practical reasons, since long hair can be a liability in industrial jobs and a disadvantage in streetfights. Skinheads may also have cut their hair short in defiance of the more bourgeois hippie culture popular at the time. In addition to retaining many mod influences, early skinheads were very interested in Jamaican rude boy styles and culture, especially the music: ska, rocksteady, and early reggae (before the tempo slowed down and lyrics became focused on topics like black nationalism and Rastafarianism).[6]

Skinhead culture became so popular by 1969 that even the rock band Slade temporarily adopted the look, as a marketing strategy.[7] The subculture gained wider notice because of a series of violent and sexually explicit novels by Richard Allen, notably Skinhead and Skinhead Escapes.

[edit] Offshoots and revivals

By the 1970s, the skinhead subculture started to fade from popular culture, and some of the original skins dropped into new categories, such as the suedeheads (defined by the ability to manipulate one's hair with a comb), smoothies (often with shoulder-length hairstyles), and bootboys (with mod-length hair; associated with gangs and hooliganism).[8] [9] Some fashion trends returned to mod roots, reintroducing brogues, loafers, suits, and the slacks-and-sweater look.

In the mid-1970s, the skinhead subculture was revived to a notable extent after the introduction of punk rock. Skinheads with even shorter hair and less emphasis on traditional styles grew in numbers and grabbed media attention, mostly as a result of their involvement with football hooliganism. These skinheads wore punk-influenced styles like higher boots than before (14-20 eyelets) and tighter jeans (sometimes splattered with bleach). However, there were still several skinheads who preferred the original mod-inspired styles. Eventually different interpretations of the skinhead subculture expanded beyond The UK and Europe. One major example is that in the United States, certain segments of the hardcore punk scene embraced skinhead style and developed its own version of the subculture.

[edit] Racism and anti-racism

In the late 1960s, some skinheads (including black skinheads) had engaged in Paki bashing (random violence against Pakistanis and other South Asian immigrants).[10][11] However, there had also been anti-racist and leftist skinheads from the beginning, especially in areas such as Scotland and Northern England.[12] [13] In the 1970s, the racist violence became more politicized, with the involvement of far right organizations like the National Front and British Movement, which included many skinheads among their ranks. Those organizations' positions against blacks and Asians appealed to many working class skinheads who blamed immigrants for economic and social problems. This led to the public's misconception that skinheads are neo-Nazis.

In an attempt to counter this stereotype, some skinheads formed anti-racist organizations. Skinheads Against Racial Prejudice (SHARP) started in the USA in 1987, and Anti-Racist Action (ARA) began in 1988 as an anti-racial movement, not a political movement.[14] SHARP spread to the UK and beyond, and other less-political skinheads also spoke out against neo-Nazis and in support of traditional skinhead culture. Two examples are the Glasgow Spy Kids in Scotland (who coined the phrase Spirit of 69), and the publishers of the Hard As Nails zine in England.[15]

[edit] Music

Originally, the skinhead subculture was associated with ska and reggae music, such as that of Desmond Dekker, Laurel Aitken, Symarip and Joe the Boss. The link between skinheads and reggae led to a sub-genre known as skinhead reggae. Other music genres popular with early skinheads were Motown, Northern Soul, Rocksteady, and mod RnB. Suedeheads of the 1970s were also known to listen to British glam rock bands like The Sweet and Mott the Hoople.[8]

The most popular music style for late-1970s skinheads was 2 Tone (also called Two Tone), named after a Coventry, England record label featuring bands such as The Specials, Madness, and The Selecter. Two Tone was the musical integration of ska, rocksteady and punk rock.[16] The label scored many top 20 hits, and eventually a number one. During this time (1979-1981), skinheads were a common sight on the UK high streets.

In the 1970s and early 1980s, Oi! music became accepted by many skinheads and punks. Oi! continues to be one of the most popular genres among skinheads. Musically, it combines elements of punk rock, football chants, pub rock and British glam rock.[17] Some forefathers of Oi! were Sham 69, Cock Sparrer and Menace. The term Oi! as a musical genre is said to come from the band Cockney Rejects and journalist Garry Bushell, who championed the genre in Sounds magazine. Well-known Oi! bands of the late 1970s and early 1980s include Angelic Upstarts, Blitz, The Business, Skrewdriver, Last Resort, Combat 84 and the 4-Skins.[18] Not exclusively a skinhead genre, many Oi! bands included both skins, punks and people who fit into neither category (sometimes called herberts).

White power skinheads developed a separate musical culture known as Rock Against Communism (RAC), which features bands such as Skrewdriver, Brutal Attack and Bound for Glory. It started out musically similar to Oi! and punk rock, and has adopted some elements from heavy metal and rock music.

U.S. Oi! began in the 1980s with bands such as The Press, Iron Cross (whose lead singer's father was a refugee from Nazi Germany), The Bruisers (their former singer now in Dropkick Murphys), and Anti-Heros (who sued the makers of American History X for wrongful use of their logo).[19][20][21] American skinheads also welcomed hardcore punk into the skinhead subculture, with bands like Warzone, Agnostic Front, and Cro-mags. Contemporary American Oi! bands usually mix early American hardcore and 1970s UK streetpunk to arrive at a style all their own.

[edit] Style and clothing

[22][23][24]

Hair:

  • Men: Originally, between a 2 and 3 grade clip-guard (short, but not bald); beginning in the late 1970s, typically shaved closer, with no greater than a number 2 guard. Now some skinheads clip their hair with no guard, and some even shave it with a razor. This started with the introduction of the Oi! scene. Some skinheads sport sideburns of various styles, usually neatly trimmed.
  • Women: In the 1960s, many female skinheads had normal or mod-influenced hairstyles. During the revival, many started wearing a Chelsea hairstyle, which is a shorter punk-influenced version of the feather cut. A feathercut is short on top (crown), with fringes at the front, back and sides. A chelsea cut is generally one that is shaved almost entirely at the back, leaving fringes in the front, and bangs. Feathercuts tend to have longer fringes.

Tops:

  • Men: fitted Ben Sherman, Fred Perry, Brutus, Jaytex, Arnold Palmer and other brands of button-up or polo shirts; Lonsdale shirts or sweatshirts; V-neck sweaters; cardigan sweaters; sweater vests; T-shirts; fitted blazers. Traditional skinheads sometimes wear tailored suits — particularly tonic (also called shark-skin) suits, so named for the shiny material.
  • Women: Same as men, with addition of dress suits — comprised of a ¾ length jacket and matching short skirt.

Coats:

Bottoms:

  • Men: Levi's, Lee or Wrangler jeans (usually blue), straight leg with rolled cuffs (turn-ups) to show off boots, often with hem cut off and sewn to give neater, flatter turn-up; Sta-Prest flat-fronted slacks and other trousers; bleachers (jeans splattered with bleach to resemble camouflage trousers), popular among punk-influenced Oi! skins; combat trousers (plain or camouflage), popular among Oi! skins and scooter boys.
  • Women: Same jeans and trousers as men, or skirts and stockings. Some skingirls wear fishnet stockings and mini-skirts, a style introduced during the skinhead revival.

Footwear:

  • Men: boots, originally army surplus or generic workboots, then Dr. Martens (AKA Docs, DMs or Doc Martens) boots and shoes, and later brogues and loafers (especially among suedeheads). Other brands of boots have become popular, partly because Dr. Martens and Grinders footwear are no longer made in England. During the 1960s, steel-toe boots were called bovver boots — thought to derive from the Cockney pronunciation of bother (in this context, meaning violence).
  • Women: Dr. Martens boots or shoes, monkey boots, loafers or brogues.

Hats: Trilby hats; pork pie hats; flat caps (AKA Scally cap, Benny or driver cap). Less common have been bowler hats (AKA derby hats), mostly among suedeheads and those influenced by the film A Clockwork Orange.

Braces: Various colours, usually no more than ¾ inch in width. In some areas, wider braces may identify a skinhead as either white power or a wanna-be.

[edit] Tattoos

Including (but not limited to):

  • Anti-racist: Trojan helmet; anti-Nazi logo; skinhead smashing racist symbol; crucified skinhead (two-tone black and white), images of black and white skinheads together (i.e. shaking hands); anti-racist slogans (i.e. Smash Fascism, AFA; SHARP; ANTIFA). (Note: redskins and anarchist skins may have political symbols such as red stars, red flags, hammer and sickles or anarchy symbols.)

[edit] Laces and braces

Some skinheads, particularly highly political ones, attach significance to the color of boot laces, braces, and (less commonly) flight jackets. Some use them to indicate beliefs or affiliations. The particular colors used have varied regionally, so only skinheads from the same area are likely to interpret them accurately. In many areas laces must be 'laddered' - arranged with the outside laces horizontal and parallel, resembling a ladder - to be considered of any significance. The "braces and laces game" has largely fallen into disuse, particularly among traditionalist skinheads, who are more likely to choose their colors for fashion purposes.

[edit] Categories

There are several different types of skinheads, in terms of style and political beliefs. Some skinheads don't fit into any of these categories, and many display characteristics of more than one category. The usefulness of these terms is to explain the dominant forces of skinhead social structure. There are no reliable statistics documenting how many skinheads have belonged to each category.

[edit] Style categories

  • Traditional skinheads (Trads, Trojan Skinheads) - They identify with the original skinhead movement (Spirit of 69) in terms of music, style, culture and working class pride. Unlike the other categories, traditionalist skinheads often do not regard attitudes toward racism as central to the subculture.
  • Oi! skins and Punk-skinheads - Originating after the development of punk rock, they prefer Oi! and punk music. They often have shorter hair and more tattoos — and wear items such as high boots, tight jeans, T-Shirts and flight jackets. Although the original Oi! bands advocated a pro-worker populist stance, the Oi! fanbase includes a wide range of political beliefs.
  • Gay Skinhead - A gay person who identifies with the skinhead subculture, often (though not necessarily) out of sexual interest. Gay skinheads can also fit into other style or political categories.

[edit] Political categories

  • Anti-racist (SHARP) - Aggressively opposed to neo-Nazism and racism, although not always political in terms of other issues. The label SHARP is sometimes used to describe all anti-racist skinheads, even if they aren't members of a SHARP organization. Some anti-racist skins have been involved with political groups such as Anti-Fascist Action (AFA) or Anti-Racist Action (ARA). White power and traditional Skinheads sometimes refer to them as baldies.
  • Apolitical or Centrist - Anti-political skinheads, politically moderate skinheads, or skinheads who keep their political views out of the skinhead subculture. Skinheads on either extreme of the political spectrum sometimes refer to this type as a fencewalker.
  • White Power or Nazi skinhead - Racist, extremely nationalist and highly political. Despite the common moniker, many Nazi skinheads have no connection to the original skinhead culture in terms of style or interests. SHARPs and traditional skinheads often refer to them as boneheads.

[edit] Glossary of terms

  • 3i's (or 3-eyes), 8i's (or 8-eyes) etc.
Leather shoes or boots, referring to the number of rows of lace eyelets. Other common numbers are 10, 12, 14, 18, and 20.
  • Bleachers
Blue jeans treated with household bleach to create a military camouflage-like pattern. They were popular among punk-influenced Oi! skins of the late 1970s and the 1980s.
  • Bonehead
  1. A derisive term used by traditional and anti-racist skinheads for a neo-Nazi skinhead.
  2. A derisive term used by traditional skinheads for punk-influenced Oi! skinheads.
  • Bootboy
  1. Another word for skinhead.
  2. A specific gang-oriented skinhead offshoot that started in the late early 1970s, involving a longer hairstyle and mod appearance, but still wearing boots. Their main focus was football hooliganism.[9]
  • Boot party
(primarily USA) Euphemism for a skinhead fight involving kicking, especially when one side outnumbers the other.
  • Bovver boy
(primarily UK) Another term for skinhead, specifically one who frequently seeks out enemies to fight. Opponents are usually members of rival subcultures or football firms. Bovver is Cockney dialect for bother (in this case, referring to violence).
  • Braces
A fashion accessory for holding up trousers, consisting of a pair of elasticized bands which go over the shoulders and fasten to the trousers (usually with metal clips). In North America they are commonly called suspenders, although many skinheads use the British term. (Suspenders in UK English means a garter belt.)
  1. A female skinhead (also called a skinhead girl or skingirl).
  2. The usual haircut of a female skinhead, consisting of short hair on the crown, sides and back; with a longer fringe in the front and on the neck. Also known as a feathercut.
An image depicting a skinhead suspended from a cross; often seen on T-shirts and patches, or as a tattoo. It symbolizes the hardships of the skinhead lifestyle (such as being vilified as racist even if one is not).
  • Fence-walker (or Fence-sitter)
A derisive term used by political skinheads for those who refuse to take sides, or who will associate with opposing groups.
  • Freshcut
A skinhead (usually young) who is new to the subculture. There is no consensus about how long one must be part of the skinhead subculture before this label no longer applies.
  • Oi Toy
A female who has sex with several male skinheads; a skinhead groupie.
A dance style associated with ska music.
Acts of extreme violence, often random, with no clear justification. It comes from the fictional Nadsat dialect featured in the Anthony Burgess novel A Clockwork Orange.

[edit] Footnotes

  1. ^ Rawlings, Terry (2000). Mod: A Very British Phenomenon. London: Omnibus Press. ISBN 0-7119-6813-6. 
  2. ^ Barnes, Richard (1979). Mods!. London: Eel Pie Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0-85965-173-8. 
  3. ^ Edwards, Dave. Trojan Mod Reggae Box Set liner notes. London: Trojan Records. TJETD020. 
  4. ^ Old Skool Jim. Trojan Skinhead Reggae Box Set liner notes. London: Trojan Records. TJETD169. 
  5. ^ Marshall, George (1991). Spirit of '69 - A Skinhead Bible. Dunoon, Scotland: S.T. Publishing. ISBN 1-898927-10-3). 
  6. ^ Smiling Smash: An Interview with Cathal Smyth, a.k.a Chas Smash, of Madness
  7. ^ Straight From His Own Gob - NODDY HOLDER interview
  8. ^ a b de Konigh, Michael (2004). Suedehead Reggae Box Set liner notes. London: Trojan Records. TJETD003. 
  9. ^ a b Marshall, George (1991). Spirit of '69 - A Skinhead Bible. Dunoon, Scotland: S.T. Publishing. ISBN 1-898927-10-3). 
  10. ^ Violence In Our Minds - The Skinhead Nation
  11. ^ Monty Montgomery of the Pyramids/Symarip interview
  12. ^ No Mean City - The Skinhead Nation
  13. ^ REDSKINS - The Interview, 1986
  14. ^ Neither Red Or Racist - The Skinhead Nation
  15. ^ No Mean City - The Skinhead Nation
  16. ^ The 2-Tone discography
  17. ^ Oi! – The Truth by Garry Bushell
  18. ^ Marshall, George (1991). Spirit of '69 - A Skinhead Bible. Dunoon, Scotland: S.T. Publishing. ISBN 1-898927-10-3). 
  19. ^ Sab Grey Weblog
  20. ^ IMDb
  21. ^ TAANG! RECORDS
  22. ^ Knight, Nick (1997). Skinhead. London: Omnibus Press. ISBN 0-7119-0052-3). 
  23. ^ Marshall, George (1991). Spirit of '69 - A Skinhead Bible. Dunoon, Scotland: S.T. Publishing. ISBN 1-898927-10-3). 
  24. ^ RudeBoy/Skinhead Style - Ruder Than the Web!

[edit] Bibliography

  • Trojan Mod Reggae Box Set liner notes: Dave Edwards (TJETD020)
  • Skinhead : Nick Knight (ISBN 0-7119-0052-3)
  • Skinhead Nation : George Marshall (ISBN 1-898927-45-6)
  • Skins : Gavin Watson (ISBN 0-9539942-1-X)
  • Spirit of '69 - A Skinhead Bible : George Marshall (ISBN 1-898927-10-3)
  • Suedehead Reggae Box Set liner notes: Michael de Konigh (TJETD003)
  • Trojan Skinhead Reggae Box Set liner notes: Old Skool Jim (TJETD169)

[edit] External links


Skinhead
Skinhead - 2 Tone - Alpha Industries - Ben Sherman - Blue Beat - Casuals - Chelsea girl - Crombie - Dr. Martens - Fred Perry - Gay skinhead - Hammerskins - Hardcore - Harrington jacket - Lambretta - Levi's - Lonsdale - Mod - Nazi skinhead - Northern soul - Oi! - Punk rock - Punk-Skinhead - RASH - Redskin - Reggae - Rocksteady - Rude boy - Scooters - Scooterboy - SHARP - Ska - Skank (dance) - Skinhead Books - Skinhead Films - Spirit of 69 - Sta-Prest - Streetpunk - Suedehead - Trojan Records - Trojan skinhead - Vespa
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