Shura
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shura is an (Arabic شورَى [ʃuːˈræː]) word for "consultation". It is believed to be the method by which pre-Islamic Arabian tribes selected leaders and made major decisions.
Islamic Lawyers say that Islam requires the Caliph to be elected via Shura, but even if he is not, obedience to the Caliphs is fard, so long as they govern according to Islamic law and justice. This is the mainstream and more traditional approach, characteristic of many centuries of Islamic history (see History of Islam), although opinions differ on what action to take in the long term absence of a caliphate, as is the situation currently.
Some Muslims say that Islam requires absolutely all decisions made by and for the Muslim societies to be made by shura. To some, this means that Islam enjoins representative democracy. This belief is characteristic of liberal movements within Islam.
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[edit] Choosing of the first caliphs by shura
Arguments over shura begin with the debate over the succession to Muhammad. When the Islamic prophet Muhammad died in 632 CE, a tumultuous meeting at Saqifah selected Abu Bakr as his successor. This meeting did not include some of those with a strong interest in the matter -- especially Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. Ali and his supporters only later submitted to Abu Bakr. In later years, the party of Ali (Shi'at Ali) split from the rest of the Muslim community over this question of succession, thus splitting the ummah into Sunni and Shi'a groups.
Sunni Muslims believe that shura is recommended in the Qur'an, Islam's holy book, and by numerous hadith, or oral traditions of the sayings and doings of Muhammad and his companions. They say that the first four caliphs, or successors to Muhammad, whom they call the Four Rightly-guided Caliphs, were chosen by shura. (See Succession to Muhammad, Umar ibn al-Khattab, The election of Uthman, and Ali Ibn Abi Talib.)
Shi'a Muslims believe that Muhammad had clearly indicated that Ali was his divinely-appointed infallible successor regardless of shura, a recommendation that was ignored by the first three caliphs. Shi'a do not stress the role of shura in choosing leaders, but believe that the divine vice-regent is chosen by God, or Allah, from the lineage of Muhammad (Ahl al-Bayt). The largest Shi'a sect believes that the current imam is in "occultation", hidden away until the last days, but there are minority Shi'a who follow leaders believed to be infallible imams.
[edit] Shura and the caliphate
During and after Ali's tenure as caliph, the Muslim community fell into civil war. Power was eventually grasped by the Ummayad caliphs and then by the Abbasid caliphs. However, few of the later caliphs had anything but nominal control over the many Islamic states. There were also rival caliphates in Egypt and Al-Andalus, which included much of current-day Spain. Later the rulers of the Ottoman empire claimed the caliphate. The nominal Ottoman caliphate was dissolved in 1924.
None of these caliphs or rulers was chosen by shura; all grasped power by inheritance or by the sword. The Muslim clergy counselled submission to rulers as long as they were Muslims; however, the clergy also stressed the duty of the ruler to rule by shura. They based this recommendation on these two passages from the Qur'an:
- "...So pardon them and ask forgiveness for them and consult with them [the believers] upon the conduct of affairs." (3:159)
This verse suggests that shura is obligatory. The context of this verse makes a direct reference to those (Muslims) who disobeyed the Muhammad. Therefore it is clear that ordinary, fallible Muslims should be consulted.
- "those who conduct their affairs by counsel [are praised]"(42:38).
This second suggests that shura is praiseworthy but does not indicate whether or not it is mandatory. This verse also does not clarify who should be consulted. Neither of the verses clarify what subjects should be conducted through consultation (all decisions? major decisions? at the discretion of the ruler?). The verses also do not say who is to be followed in the event of a disagreement, the ruler or the shura.
In practice, most Muslim rulers were autocratic, listened only to powerful advisors and clergy, and rejected advice they did not like.
[edit] Shura and contemporary Muslim-majority states
Some Muslim-majority states, like Turkey, are secular democracies or constitutional monarchies (Morocco). They could thus be said to be ruled by one version of shura. Other states are autocracies, secular, monarchic, or clerical.
The bicameral Parliament of Pakistan is officially called the Majlis-i-Shura, although the Constitution uses various spellings of the term.
Secular autocracies:
- In Egypt, the Upper House of Parliament is known as the Shura Council. Most members are elected for a six-year term. However, all real power is held by Hosni Mubarak.
Monarchist autocracies:
- Saudi Arabia was given a shura council in 1993; there are now 120 members. All real power is held by the King, who is elected by family members, with no input from the populace.
- Oman has a shura council, but its members are appointed by the Sultan and they can only offer advice, which may be refused if the Sultan so pleases.
Clerical autocracies:
- Iran is now ruled by a Shi'a Islamist government, which came to power in 1979 with the Iranian Revolution. The leader practices shura in that he consults with the other clergy. There is also a parliament, on the Western model, but it has little power.
