Second War of Schleswig
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| Second War of Schleswig | |||||||||||
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| Part of the wars of German unification | |||||||||||
 The Battle of Dybbøl by Jørgen Valentin Sonne, 1871 |
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| Combatants | |||||||||||
 Prussia Austria German Confederation |
 Denmark |
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| Commanders | |||||||||||
| Friedrich Graf von Wrangel | Christian Julius De Meza replaced by George Daniel Gerlach on February 29 |
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| Strength | |||||||||||
| At the outbreak of war: 61,000 158 guns Later reinforcements: 20,000 64 guns[1] |
38,000 100+ guns[2] |
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| Casualties | |||||||||||
| 1,700+ killed, wounded, or captured | 1,570+ killed, 700+ wounded, 3,550+ captured | ||||||||||
| Second War of Schleswig |
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| Mysunde – Dannevirke – Sankelmark – Rügen – Dybbøl – Fredericia – Heligoland – Als – Lundby |
The Second War of Schleswig (Danish: 2. Slesvigske Krig; German: Zweiter Schleswig-Holsteinischer Krieg) was the second military conflict due to the Schleswig-Holstein Question. The war ended in Denmark's cession of the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein to Prussian and Austrian administration, respectively.
Other names by which the war is known include the Danish-Prussian War, the German-Danish War (German: Deutsch-Dänischer Krieg), the War of 1864, and the Schleswig-Holstein War of Succession.
Prompted by a confrontation with the German Confederation, the war took place in 1864 between Prussia and Austria against Denmark, which had long ruled Schleswig as a Danish fief and Holstein as a German fief. Like the First War of Schleswig (1848–51), the second was fought for control of the duchies because of succession disputes when the Danish king died without an heir acceptable to the German Confederation. Additional controversy arose due to the passing of the November Constitution, a joint Danish/Schleswig constitution.
Actual historical reasons for the war were the ethnic controversy in Schleswig and the co-existence of conflicting political systems within the Danish unitary state.
Contents |
[edit] Background
The secessionist movement in Schleswig-Holstein was suppressed in the First War of Schleswig (1848–51), but the movement continued throughout the 1850s and 1860s, as proponents of German unification increasingly expressed the wish to include the two Danish-ruled duchies Holstein and Schleswig in a 'Greater Germany'. Holstein was completely German, but Schleswig was linguistically mixed between German, Danish, and North Frisian. Originally all Schleswig spoke Danish, except for North Frisian on the sea-marshes and polders along its west coast; however, the southern half of the territory had became more German since the 17th century. German culture dominated in the clergy and nobility, while Danish had a lower social status. For centuries, when the rule of the king was absolute, these conditions had created few tensions. When ideas of democracy spread and national currents emerged ca. 1820, identification was mixed between Danish and German.
To that was added a grievance about tolls charged by Denmark on shipping passing through the Danish Straits to pass between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea. To avoid that expense, Prussia planned the Kiel Canal, which could not be built as long as Denmark ruled Holstein.
Much of the dispute focused on the future successor of King Frederick VII of Denmark. In general terms, the Germans of Holstein and Schleswig supported the House of Augustenburg, a cadet branch of the Danish royal family, but the average Dane considered them too German and preferred the rival Glücksburg branch and Prince Christian of Glücksburg as the new sovereign. It was significant that Prince Christian had served on the Danish side in the First War of Schleswig in 1848-1851.
[edit] Summary
In late 1863 King Frederick VII of Denmark died leaving no sons as he was about to sign a controversial new draft constitution for Denmark and the duchies. The resulting dispute over the succession added to the controversy, and precipitated war between Denmark and an alliance of German states when the new Christian IX became king and signed the draft constitution.
Denmark did not have enough army to hold Holstein, and pulled its army back to the border between Schleswig and Holstein. Most of it fortified itself behind the Danevirke. German troops soon occupied Holstein.
On 5 February 1864, after 4 days of skirmishing in front of the Danevirke, the Danish army, fearing being outflanked by enemy marching over hard-frozen inland waters, abandoned the Danevirke and retreated to the Dybbøl fort and Als island. Germans pursued the retreat through a blizzard. On 18 April the Prussian army stormed and took Dybbøl in heavy fighting, and on 29 July 1864 took Als. This was in effect the end of the war, despite a skirmish on 3 July at Lundby south of Ålborg, and the Danish navy stopping two Prussian naval attempts to break Denmark's naval blovckade of the area. The Prussian army advanced far into Denmark proper. On 30 October Denmark signed away Schleswig and Holstein and Lauenburg except a few small remnants.
[edit] Constitutional crisis
As the heirless King Frederick VII grew older, Denmark's successive National-Liberal cabinets became increasingly focused on maintaining control of Schleswig following the king's future death.
The king died in 1863 at a particularly critical time; work on a new constitution for the joint affairs of Denmark and Schleswig had just been completed with the draft awaiting his signature.
The newly appointed King Christian IX felt compelled to sign the draft constitution on November 18, 1863, although expressing grave concerns in the process.
This action caused an outrage among the duchies' German population and a resolution was passed by the German Confederation at the initiative of the Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck. This resolution called for the occupation of Holstein by Confederate forces. The Danish government abandoned Holstein and pulled the Danish Army back to the border between Schleswig and Holstein. Most of it fortified itself behind the Danevirke. This order to retreat without combat caused adverse comment among some Danish private soldiers,[1] but the military circumstances made it wise to shorten the frontier needed to be defended. Also, as the administrations of Holstein and Lauenburg were members of the German Confederation, not pulling back might have caused a severe political crisis and perhaps war.
[edit] Communications in the area
The only railways in 1864 in Denmark north of the Kongeå were a railway on Sjælland from Copenhagen to Korsør, and a railway in north Jutland from Århus to the northwest. Any reinforcements for the Dannevirke from Copenhagen would have gone by rail to Korsør and thence by ship to Flensburg, taking 2 or 3 days, if not hindered by storm or sea-ice. There was a good railway system in the duchies, but not further north than Flensburg and Husum.
Schleswig town, Flensburg, Sønderborg, and Dybbøl were all connected by a road paved with crushed rock and this was the route the army took. The same road continued from Flensburg to Fredericia and Århus and this was the route later taken by the Prussian army when it invaded Jutland.
[edit] Events
(See Military Calendar. When did it happen?.)
[edit] 1863
- December 24: Saxon and Hanoverian troops marched into Holstein in the name of the German Confederation, and supported by their presence and by the loyalty of the Holsteiners the duke assumed government as "Duke Frederick VIII".
[edit] 1864
[edit] January
For further political events, see History of Schleswig-Holstein#Bismarck and Holstein.
- January: The situation remained tense but without fighting; Danish forces controlled the north bank of the River Eider and German forces the south bank.
- January 16: Bismarck issued an ultimatum to Denmark demanding that the November Constitution should be abolished within 48 hours. This was politically impossible, particularly given the short deadline, and the demand was consequently rejected by the Danish government.
All the inland waters (Eider River, Treene, Schlei, and the marshes east of Husum and around the Rheider Au) that the Danes were relying on as defence, were frozen hard and could be crossed easily.
[edit] February
At the start of the war, the Danish army consisted of about 38,000 men in 4 divisions. The 8th Brigade consisted of the 9th and 20th Regiments (approximately 1600 soldiers each), which consisted mainly of soldiers from the middle and west and north of Jutland. About 36000 men defended the Dannevirke, a job which it was said would have needed 50000 men to do properly.
The Prussian army had 37 battalions, 29 squadrons, and 110 guns, amounting to approximately 38,400 men. The Austrian army had 20 battalions, 10 squadrons, and 48 guns consisting of approximately 23,000 men. During the war the Prussian army was further strengthened with 64 guns and 20,000 men. The supreme commander for the Prussian-Austrian army was Field Marshal von Wrangel.
- Feb 1: Prussian and Austrian troops cross into Schleswig, and war becomes inevitable. The Austrians attack towards the refortified Dannevirke frontally.
- Feb 2: Prussian forces attack Danish fortifications at Mysunde (on the Schlei coast of Schwansen east of Schleswig town), trying to bypass the Danevirke by crossing the frozen Schlei inlet, but in 6 hours could not take the Danish positions, and retreated.
- Feb 3: Battle for Kongshøj. Austrian forces commanded by General Gondrecourt push the Danes back to the Dannevirke. The Danish 6. Brigade had an important part. The battle was in a snowstorm at -10°C.
- This link records this incident in fighting against Austrians at Selk and Kongshøj and Saksarmen on 3 February 3 1864:
- "The enemy sharpshooters immediately got reinforcement of a whole battalion, which advanced in a column with a music band which blew a storm-march, the batallion's commander followed on a horse, and after that the batallion's standard. Captain Stockfleth ordered his men to fire on the band and the batallion's commander and the standard-bearer. After that the storm-march sounded not so beautiful now that that lacked quite a few voices. The battalion commander's horse was shot under him. He grasped the standard when the standard-bearer fell, and now it went forward again with great strength."
- A Danish military report[3] dated 11 Feb 1864 said this about incidents near Kongshøj and Vedelspang:
- "On the 3 February the Regiment's 1st Battalion occupied the Brigade's forward post line while its 2 Battalion stood as a reserve in Bustrup. The company commanders Daue and Steinmann under Major Schack's command increased its main position near Vedelspang while the Stockfleth Company stood between Neder Selck and Alten Mühle as well as the Riise Company behind the dam near Hadeby.
- During the relief there, 9. Regiment first found its place about 1.30 p.m. and attacked an enemy unit which was coming from Geltorf and Brechendorf. The Stockfleth Company's main position, coming from Vedelspang, had advanced to Kongshøi, and Kastede the same distance behind the Danevirke rampart in front of Bustrup.
- In Bustrup the shooting was heard about 2 p.m.; Aarsag was in reserve. 2. Bataillon occupied the rampart and covered the withdrawing squads. The enemy pressed intensely in the east towards Hadeby-Noer, but was stopped here and remained fighting in one place until it turned dark. They sent a company to drive away the enemy from Vedelspang, but could not press further on than to towards the north part of the exercise ground.
- The regiment's losses in this fighting are: Dead, 1 corporal 1 undercorporal 7 privates; wounded, 2 corporals 3 undercorporals 18 privates; missing 11 privates.
- Fredericia 11 February 1864, Scholten, Oberstlieutenant and Regimentscommandeur."
- Feb 5: The Danish commander-in-chief lieutenant general Christian Julius De Meza abandons the Dannevirke by night to avoid being surrounded and withdraws his army to Flensburg; 600 men are captured or killed, 10 of them freeze to death;[2] he had to abandon important heavy artillery.
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- The railway from the south to Flensburg was never properly used during this evacuation, and thus the Danish army only evacuated what men and horses could carry or pull by road, leaving behind much artillery, most importantly heavy artillery. In the records are these two stories as to why:-
- That a waiting train had been instructed to head north at a specific time, which it did, but the army had not yet arrived at the station due to heavy snow.
- That the artillery was left behind on purpose, to allow a fast escape before the Prussian army noticed anything.
- But in hindsight other considerations are possible:-
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- That steam railway trains are so noisy that in a silent winter night an unnoticed getaway by railway would be impossible.
- That the railway to Flensburg was a spur from a system centered in Holstein, and thus its engine's driver and stoker were likeliest Holstein Germans and thus very unwilling to help the Danish Army, given their likely recent clear memories of the First War of Schleswig.
- That the Danish army command had not yet become accustomed to thinking in terms of railways.
- The railway from the south to Flensburg was never properly used during this evacuation, and thus the Danish army only evacuated what men and horses could carry or pull by road, leaving behind much artillery, most importantly heavy artillery. In the records are these two stories as to why:-
- Some hours later, the Prussians and Austrians discovered the retreat and started to pursue.
- This withdrawal to Als and Dybbøl has gone down in Danish history as one of the worst that Danish soldiers have been exposed to. Some of them compared it to Napoleon's retreat from Moscow. It was northwards in a north gale with driven snow, and most soldiers had had no rest for the last 4 days and nights:image. The march was burdened with artillery guns and supplies carts and had to be as slow as its slowest component. Men and horses had trouble standing. Horses could not carry or pull their loads properly because of the snow and ice; riders had to dismount and lead their horses. Artillery guns and carts overturned. The column of men and horses and vehicles seemed endless. The army had to march from the Danevirke to Flensburg, which took about 14-18 hours. (Schleswig (town) by the east end of the Danevirke is 20 miles from Flensburg as the crow flies, but further by road, plus getting from their positions to Schleswig town first.) They also had to fight rearguard against pursuing Prussians and Austrians. Some men in sight of Flensburg and thankful for coming rest were ordered to stop or go back to man checkpoints. Many men were missing at the roll call, and it was thought that that the many Slesvig-men among the soldiers would desert the march on the way and go home; but most of them came in that morning or the next morning.
- Near Helligbæk about 6 miles north of Schleswig (town) pursuing Austrians reached them, and in heavy fighting near Oversø 9. and 20. Regiments of 8. Brigade lost 600 men dead and injured and captured. On that day 10 Danish soldiers died of hypothermia.
- Near Sankelmark (about 5 miles south of Flensburg) pursuing Austrians caught up with the Danish rear party who consisted of 1. and 11. regiments. The Danes were commanded by Colonel Max Müller. A hard fight where large parts of 1. Regiment were taken prisoner, stopped the Austrians, and the retreat could continue. The Danes lost more than 500 men there.
- After a short rest and some food and drink in Flensburg, 8. Brigade had to march to Sønderborg where they were taken by ship to Fredericia; the ship was so loaded that the men could not lie down, and on deck they had no shelter from the winter weather. Other units stayed in Dybbøl; a report says that some were so exhausted on arrival that they lay on the ground in heaps 3 or 4 deep to sleep.
- The combatless loss of the Dannevirke, which in the 19th century had a big role in Danish national mythology due to its long history, caused in Denmark a substantial psychological shock, and de Meza as a result had to resign from supreme command. Denmark never again ruled the Dannevirke.
- The Austrians under von Gablentz marched north from Flensburg, and the Prussians advanced east on Sønderborg.
- An unconfirmed source says that that year the thaw came soon after the men retreating to Dybbøl settled there as its garrison.
- Feb 18: Some Prussian hussars, in the excitement of a cavalry skirmish, cross the north frontier of Schleswig into Denmark proper and occupy the town of Kolding.
- An invasion of Denmark itself had not been part of the original programme of the allies. Bismarck determined to use this circumstance to revise the whole situation. He urged upon Austria the necessity for a strong policy, so as to settle once for all not only the question of the duchies but the wider question of the German Confederation; and Austria reluctantly consented to press the war.
- The Austrian army decided to stop at the north frontier of Schleswig. Some Prussians moved against Kolding and Vejle.
- Feb 22: Prussian troops attack the Danish forward line at Dybbøl and force them back to the main defence line.
- Feb 28: Five Danish dragoons from the 4th Squadron of the 6th Dragoon Regiment are surprised by Prussian hussars on the road between Kolding and Vejle in Denmark proper. One dragoon escapes, three are captured, but one, Niels Kjeldsen, is shot by a Prussian standard bearer, Count Gustav von Lüttichau, after a fierce fight.
- Feb 29: Skirmish at Vorbasse. A squadron of Danish dragoons defeats a squadron of Prussian hussars.
[edit] March
- Mar 8: Bismarck pushed the Austrians into moving into Denmark proper. Austrian forces capture Vejle after fierce house-to-house combat. The Danish units involved retreated to Horsens and later to Vendsyssel.
- In Fredericia Danish 8. Brigade's 20. Regiment were involved in a bigger skirmish: the regiment's 1. Company were captured near Snoghøj (on the mainland near where the Middelfart bridge is now.) The rest of Fredericia's garrison retreated to Fyn.
- March 11: A fresh agreement was signed between the powers, under which the compacts of 1852 were declared to be no longer valid, and the position of the duchies within the Danish monarchy as a whole was to be made the subject of a friendly understanding.
- Mar 15: Prussian siege artillery begins to bombard the Danish fortifications at Dybbøl from positions at Broager.
- Mar 17: Skirmish in front of Dybbøl: the Prussian army drives back the Danish outposts.
- Mar 17: Naval Battle of Jasmund also known as the Battle of Rügen: A Prussian naval force attempts to break the Danish naval blockade of Schleswig and Holstein. Van Dockum's Danish squadron with the frigate Sjælland pushes the Prussians back to Swinemünde.
- Mar 28: Prussian forces attack the outposts of Dybbøl at 3 a.m. but are driven back
- Mar 29: Skirmish at Assendrup. A Danish corps captures a group of Prussian hussars.
[edit] April
- Apr 2: The Prussian front artillery batteries in front of Dybbøl start to bombard the fortifications and the town of Sønderborg. Until April 18 about 65,000 shells are fired at the Danish positions.
- Apr 4: A Prussian attack on Dybbøl is thrown back.
- Apr 18: At 10 a.m. at Dybbøl 10,000 Prussian soldiers storm the Danish fortifications after 6 hours of artillery preparations and take Dybbøl fort. The Danish 8th Brigade fails a counter-attack but is praised for courage. 1,700 Danish casualties; this source says about Danish 5000 dead and wounded and captured, and about 1200 Prussian. See Battle of Dybbøl. (18 April is a military memorial day in Denmark for this defeat, including a ceremony on Dybbøl fort hill.)
- Apr 25: The Danish army commanded by General Niels Christian Lunding, on direct order from the Minister of War, abandons Fredericia, which was besieged by Austrians.
- Apr 25 - June 25: A conference in London about the political issues involved. For the discussions there, see History of Schleswig-Holstein#London conference.
[edit] May
- May 9: Naval Battle of Heligoland.
- May 12: The conference in London led to a ceasefire, which soon broke down, as they could not agree on a clear fixing of the boundaries; partitioning the duchy of Schleswig was seen as possible. War continued. Prussians from beside Dybbøl bombarded Sønderborg.
- May 26: Prussian artillery fires on Als.
[edit] June
- June 24: Seeing that the truce was ending, Austria and Prussia arrived at a new agreement, that the war was to completely separate the duchies from Denmark.
- June 25: The conference in London broke up without having arrived at any conclusion.
- June 29: Battle of Als.
- June 30: The Prince's Life Regiment is the last of the Danish army to leave Schleswig and Holstein.
[edit] July
- July 3: A Danish force commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Charles Beck attacks a Prussian force at Lundby south of Ålborg in the north of Jutland. See Battle of Lundby. This is the last battle in the Second War of Schleswig.
- July 14: The Prussian general von Falckenberg signed his name in the church book at Skagen at the north tip of Jutland.[3] With this all of Jutland, the Danish mainland, was occupied by the aggressors. Now also the Danish islands were endangered, and the Danish government had to again accept armistice and peace negotiations, now however under clearly more difficult conditions.
- July 29: The Prussian army occupies Als.
[edit] August and after
- Aug 1: The preliminaries of a peace treaty are signed: the King of Denmark renounces all his rights in the duchies in favour of the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia.
- Oct 30: In the Treaty of Vienna (1864) Denmark ceded Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg to Prussia and Austria. Denmark was also forced to surrender the enclaves in western Schleswig that were legally part of Denmark proper and not part of Schleswig, but was allowed to keep the island of Ærø (which had been administered as part of Schleswig), the town of Ribe and its surrounding land, and eight parishes from Tyrstrup Herred south of Kolding.[4] The lost areas were 40% of Denmark's land area and inhabited by 20% of its population.
When the Danish army came back to Copenhagen after this war, they got no cheering or other public acclaim, unlike on their victorious return to Copenhagen after the First War of Schleswig.
See History of Schleswig-Holstein#Treaty of Vienna et seq. for further events.
[edit] Consequences
In its first clash of arms since reorganization, the effectiveness of the Prussian forces proved clear, something the Austrians ignored, to their cost 18 months later in the Austro-Prussian War. Prussia and Austria took over the respective administration of Schleswig and Holstein under the Gastein Convention of August 14, 1865.
The Second War of Schleswig shocked Denmark out of any idea of using war as a political tool. Danish forces were never again involved in war outside their frontiers, until as part of a NATO force against Serbia in 1999.
Since Sweden (and Norway) refused (the Swedish king had promised troops) to come to Denmark's rescue, this put an end to any dreams of political Scandinavism. As a consequence, the pan-Scandinavian movement after this year focused on literature and language, rather than politics.
[edit] Second War of Schleswig in Literature
Danish author Herman Bang wrote about the war and its effects on the island of Als in his novel Tine, published in 1889. The book has been translated into many languages, including English, and is considered to be an example of an impressionist novel.
[edit] References
- ^ Militærmusikalske minder fra de slesvigske krige 1848-50 og 1864 (Danish). Retrieved on March 11, 2007.
- ^ http://www.milhist.dk/1864/tilbagetog/tilbagetoget.htm (in Danish)
- ^ From da:2. Slesvigske Krig#Afsluttende kampe (in Danish)
