Rugby union

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Rugby union football (often referred to as simply rugby or union) is an outdoor sport played by teams of 15 players with a prolate spheroid-shaped ball. It is one of the two main forms of full-team rugby, the other being rugby league. There is also a quicker seven-a-side sport called rugby sevens, which exists in both rugby union- and rugby league-derived forms.

The game was developed from the rules used to play an early form of football at Rugby School in England, hence the name. The crucial differences from association football (soccer) are that in rugby the ball is a prolate spheroid instead of a sphere and the players are allowed to pick the ball up and run with it. The players may kick the ball, and also are allowed to throw (pass) the ball from player to player, but unlike in American football they may not throw it forward; i.e. the ball must only go backwards or laterally when thrown or passed.

Rugby union has established itself throughout the world as a highly popular sport, particularly in Argentina, Australia, Canada, England, Fiji, France, Ireland, New Zealand, Romania, Samoa, Scotland, South Africa, Tonga, Uruguay and Wales. Rugby union is also gaining popularity in Italy, following its acceptance into the Six Nations, and Japan, which bid to host the 2011 Rugby World Cup (which eventually went to New Zealand).

The International Rugby Board (IRB), founded in 1886, governs the sport worldwide and also publishes the game's laws. There are currently 95 full members and eight associate member countries. According to IRB figures, rugby union is being played in over 100 countries spanning six continents by men and women of all ages. The IRB controls the Rugby World Cup, the Women's Rugby World Cup, Rugby World Cup Sevens, IRB Sevens World Series, Under 21 World Cup, Under 19 World Championship, and the Super Cup. It holds votes to decide where all of these events shall be held, except in the case of the Sevens World Series. For that competition, the IRB contracts with several national unions to hold individual events.

Contents 1 Overview 1.1 Playing the game 2 Game laws and methods 2.1 Playing field 2.2 Players and officials 2.2.1 Players 2.2.1.1 Attire 2.2.2 Officiating 2.3 Match structure 2.4 Scoring 2.5 The Running Game 2.5.1 The Breakdown 2.5.1.1 Tackle 2.5.1.2 Ruck 2.5.1.3 Maul 2.5.1.4 Offside at the Breakdown 2.6 The kicking game 2.6.1 Offside after a kick 2.7 Set-pieces 2.7.1 Restart kicks 2.7.2 Penalty Kicks and Free kicks 2.7.3 Scrum 2.7.4 Line-out 2.7.5 Offside at the set-piece 3 Possible alterations to the laws 4 History 5 Major international tournaments 6 Coaching 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

[edit] Overview

An adult-level rugby union match lasts for 80 minutes (two halves of 40 minutes each) and is controlled by a single referee, two touch judges, and in most professional matches, a television match official (TMO), commonly called the video referee. Each team alternately attacks the opposition goal or defends their own. These goals are marked at each end of the pitch by a pair of tall (typically 10 m or more) posts set 6 m apart, and connected by a cross-bar at 3 m above the ground, the whole forming the approximate shape of a letter H. The attacking team may score by kicking the ball between the posts and above the cross-bar. The ball may only be kicked from the ground: either from a place kick following the award of a penalty or from a drop kick in open play. A successful kick at goal is worth three points. The area behind each set of goal posts is called the "in goal area" and the attacking team may also score by grounding the ball in this area. This is called a "try" and is worth five points. After scoring a try, the attacking team are awarded a free kick at goal, called a conversion, worth two points if successful, from a point directly in line with where the try was scored, and any distance away from the posts along that line.

A try is the main form of scoring, and the primary aim of most teams is to score tries. Drop goals and penalty kicks are usually augmentors, a safer option against a steadfast defence or to punish ill-disciplined opposition. On some (usually rare) occasions, a team may be awarded a penalty try, if their opponents commit a foul which is deemed by the referee to have illegally prevented a try, or if they have persistently stopped play close to the try line through foul play.

[edit] Playing the game

A typical passage of rugby takes the following form. One team will initially gain possession of the ball, either from a restart kick or a set piece (scrummage and line-out, see below). Although the team in possession may choose to advance by kicking the ball forward, out of the hands the team in possession will usually seek to progress toward the opposition by running forward while carrying the ball. The ball may be thrown from one player to another (passing) but not be thrown toward the opposition goal. Any team mate in nearer the opposition goal than the ball carrier is out of the game, and must not interfere with play, which means that American football style blocking is forbidden. The team not in possession attempts to stop the ball carrier by grabbing them and bringing them to ground (a tackle). A tackled player must pass or release the ball, allowing the two teams to contest possession of the loose ball. Play does not stop unless their is an infringement of the Laws, or the ball/ball-carrier leaves the field of play. If the ball goes into touch (off the field of play), the game restarts with a line-out. If the game stops due to an infringement, play restarts with either a scrummage, free kick or penalty kick (depending on the severity of the infringement) to the non-infringing team.

Rugby union, rugby league, rugby sevens, American football and Canadian football are all descended from rugby football. Rugby league and rugby sevens are most closely related to union, with rugby sevens and union sharing the same governing body, the IRB. Rugby league and rugby union have diverged considerably over the years. Their main differences are the number of players per side (league has 13, union 15), the scoring system, and the means of securing and retaining ball possession. In union, both teams may contest possession at a tackle or set piece; in league one team retains possession for six tackles. The use of contested scrums and lineouts in rugby union adds dramatically to the tactical variety of the modern game.

[edit] Game laws and methods

Rugby union differs from association football (soccer) in that the hands can be employed to move the ball. However, a player can only pass the ball backwards or laterally (i.e. not forward) to another player, or kick it. This means that the majority of progress made by an attacking team occurs through a leap frog cycle of passing the ball, running to make ground, being tackled and repeating this process. Each of these cycles (greatly simplified) is called a phase of play.

An aspect of rugby union which sets it apart from most other sports is the concept of "advantage". If one team commits an infraction of the Laws but the opposing team gains territorial or tactical advantage from the mistake, the referee will "play advantage" and allow play to continue.

[edit] Playing field

A rugby union field, known as a pitch, consists of a maximum playing area of 144x70 m on a grassy flat surface.^[1] Lines are painted on to the field at regular intervals; dead ball line, goal line (usually called the try line), 22-m line^[2], 10-m line (broken line) and half-way/midfield. This is mirrored on the other side of the field. Lines are also located 5 m away from the goal line and touchline and 15 m from the touchline (broken line). The length between the two goal lines is usually 100 m, although the IRB rules merely stipulate this is a maximum. The width and length of the playing field, and the distance from goal line to the dead ball line vary from pitch to pitch. Although there is no rule to say that the pitch needs to be flat or level it does state that if either team feels the pitch is unsafe, the referee must try to resolve the issues and must not start the match if any part of the ground is considered to be dangerous.^[3]

The goal consists of a pair of vertical posts placed centrally on each goal line, a distance of 5.6 m separating the posts.^[1] A horizontal bar 3 m above the ground connects the two posts; giving each goal the shape of the letter 'H'.^[1]

1.2-m flags are placed next to the field for indication on the halfway line, 22, goal line and dead ball line. The goal line and dead ball line flags are put on the intersection with the touchline and are considered out if hit by a player carrying the ball, or the ball itself.

In rugby union, unlike association football, the lines bordering the field of play are regarded as out of play. For example, a player standing on but not over the touchline is regarded to be "in touch". Similarly the goal line (and the goalposts) are considered part of the in-goal area; so a player may score a try by grounding the ball on the goal line (or against the base of one of the posts), but the dead ball line is considered outside the in-goal area, so a try is not awarded if the ball grounds on it.

[edit] Players and officials

[edit] Players

Main article: Rugby union positions

A rugby union team consists of 15 players: eight forwards, numbered 1 to 8, and seven backs, numbered 9 to 15^[4]. Depending upon the competition, there may be up to seven replacements (substitutes or reserves). Professional rugby contains seven reserves, with a player being allowed to be substituted only once, unless they are a front-rower specialist player and are replacing an injured front-rower. Another exception to this rule is the "blood bin", where a player with a visible and bleeding injury can leave the field and then return to continue after receiving treatment providing this is within 15 minutes of the player leaving the field (running clock, not game clock). A player sent to the blood bin may be replaced by another player during treatment; if the bloodied player returns to play within 15 minutes, it is not counted as a substitution.

The main role of the forwards is to gain and retain possession of the ball. They take part in set pieces of the scrum and the line-out. Generally, forwards are larger than the backs, which generally makes them stronger but slower. Forwards also have a role in taking the ball forwards, but generally do so by driving into the opposing forwards. Increasingly back row forwards such as flankers and the number 8 are becoming athletic and fast, staying out of the breakdown to participate in running moves with the backs.

The role of the backs is to move the game forward by running or kicking the ball. The scrum-half will gain possession of the ball from the forwards and usually feed it to the fly half (no.10) who then controls how the attacking team will proceed. The backline will tend to score its tries by focussing on the tactical placement of players, creating holes in the opposition defence line. A successful backline will cause the opposition to commit too many players at strategic points allowing for space to open up for the faster, outside backs (wingers and fullback).

The following diagram locates the various positions in the 15-man team. All members of the starting 15 wear jerseys, numbered from 1 to 15, and keyed to their positions (though alternatives exist); see rugby union positions and rugby union numbering schemes for more information). The first eight players, known as forwards or the pack, play in the scrum. The remaining seven players are the backs.

Rugby union positions
1 Loosehead Prop 2 Hooker 3 Tighthead Prop 4 Lock 5 Lock 6 Blindside Flanker 8 Number 8 7 Openside Flanker   9 Scrum Half 10 Fly-half 12 Inside Centre 13 Outside Centre 11 Left Wing 14 Right Wing 15 Fullback

[edit] Attire

A traditional rugby union kit consists of a collared jersey (often imitated by fashion labels and called a "rugby shirt"), shorts, long socks and boots with studs. Some modest padding is allowed on the head, shoulders and collarbone, but it must be sufficiently light, thin and compressible to meet IRB standards. Shoulder padding is generally allowed to be up to 1/8th inches thick. Players also have the option to use fingerless gloves (a.k.a. "mitts") which have been introduced recently to the game allowing players to better grip the ball. The invention of synthetic materials aids in keeping the players both cool and dry. Players also may opt to wear a mouthguard.

Hard plastic or metal are prohibited in rugby kit. This includes hard plastic shin guards. No form of metal is allowed in any rugby kit, except for IRB-approved soft aluminum studs on boots. Spectacles are prohibited for play; many players wear contact lenses.

A rugby shirt has traditionally followed a style with half a dozen horizontal stripes on the shirt. This style may be replicated on the socks. Another common design is the harlequin, a four-quarted checkered pattern. There is a large variety of designs as there are no restrictions on design. The number of colours used on a jersey varies with the club, with the club name or location usually having considerable influence. The back of a jersey will usually have the player's position number and sometimes their surname printed above the position number (mainly on professional club teams' shirts; names on international shirts are rare). The team logo traditionally will be placed on one side of the upper chest, usually the left. Sponsors also play a role in a jersey and their logos usually are placed on the front, sleeves and shorts. A club competition logo may also be included in the jersey's design. The rugby jersey is a popular fashion item for both males and females. Most rugby teams usually will have at least two jersey designs, home and away, the away being of lighter colour or an inverted colour scheme of the usual team jersey, depending on whether colour clashes with the opposition occur. Traditionally, out of courtesy the home team changed if there was a colour clash - plus, in the amateur days, it was easier for them to nip home and find a different shirt. This tradition is still practiced at international level, but not so much at club level.

Generally there are two types of boot worn: the 8 stud or the 6 stud. The 8 stud is most often worn by the tight 5 player (props, hooker and locks) to provide them with extra grip for scrummaging and mauling. The 6 stud is worn by backs as it allows for more agility, it is also lighter for quicker movement around the field. Plastic "blade" studs, common in Association Football, are an increasingly frequent choice among backs.

Padding and protective vests are now becoming more commnonly worn by players. Predominantly the padding gives protection to the shoulder area, but also provides additional protection to the biceps and the chest. Padding must be approved by the IRB before players can wear it on the field, and it will carry the IRB approval stamp ^[5].

An essential part of the safety equipment needed for rugby is the gumshield. The best gumshields are made by a dentist, a mould of the mouth is first taken and then the gumshield is cast around this mould. This provides a tight fit in the mouth and around the teeth which is essential for it to work as it should.

The headguard, also called a "scrum cap", is now commonly worn throughout all levels of the game. Protective headgear which is becoming essential due to the quantity of cuts and head injuries that can occur, particularly by the boots of players involved in rucking. Headgear also helps reduce the growth of cauliflower ears.

[edit] Officiating

The game is controlled by a single referee, who is assisted by two touch judges. The touch judges adjudicate when the ball or ball carrier is in touch and whether a kick at goal is successful. They may also assist the referee by commenting on other infringements (such as foul play) and by confirming whether or not a try has been scored; this manner of assistance is usually provided only in top-level club matches and internationals, where the two neutral touch judges have been appointed by the appropriate board. When a match is televised, a television match official (TMO), a qualified referee, may be appointed. The primary role of a TMO is to use television replays to advise the referee whether a try is legal. The circumstances in which the TMO's advice can be sought are stipulated prior to the match by the appropriate governing body. Despite the presence of other officials, the referee is the sole arbiter of the game, "the sole judge of fact and law," and is not bound to take their advice. If a referee is unable to finish the game, a replacement takes over; this is usually the more senior of the two touch judges, in which case another official will take over the duties of touch judge.

The referee may punish a player's misconduct by a caution (yellow card) or sending-off (red card). A player receiving a caution is temporarily suspended from play for ten minutes. This has become known as the "sin-bin." If the same player subsequently commits a further cautionable offence, he is sent off for ten minutes.

[edit] Match structure

Before a game commences, traditionally, a coin will be tossed to determine which side will kick off and what direction the teams will be running. This is usually performed by a referee although the laws suggest that it should be done by one of the captains. In most cases, the home side will elect what side of the coin they will choose, either heads or tails. The winner may choose to kick off or which direction they will run. A number of elements may become part of the decision-making process of a coin winner. A personal preference may be that a team wishes to start the match defending, thus will elect to receive the ball, or vice versa.

Weather can be a decisive factor, such as the possibility of having a potentially large advantage over an opponent if there is a high amount of wind, as it would aid their kicking game. Depending on the time of the game, the sun might be a factor in the decision, being a potential problem to the vision of players, depending on what way they run. The 2006 Super 14 Final was affected by poor weather, with low fog preventing players from seeing little more than 40 metres.

Depending on when the toss was performed, both sides will make their way out onto the field. Kick-off will be performed from the center of the field. Each half lasts 40 minutes, but play comes to an end only when the ball goes dead. Variations in time and extra-time apply in any number of interpretations of the game, or tournaments. 'Half-time' lasts around 10 minutes, allowing for players to recover from fatigue and for coach interaction as well as other factors, such as time for crowds to access amenities and facilities. In the second half, the teams swap the direction of running, and the team kicking off, so any possible advantage such as wind may now be in favour of the other side, although the conditions may no longer be present.

[edit] Scoring

The aim of rugby union is to score more points than the opposition. Teams score in several ways:

• Touching the ball to the ground over the opponents' goal line using the hand, hands, arm or arms. Also by pressing the ball down (with controlled downward pressure) with any point on the body from the waist to the neck (inclusive), over the opponents' goal line. The opponents' goal line includes the base of the posts, which is considered to be part of the goal line. Doing either of these results in a try, worth 5 points. A penalty try can be awarded if, following any infringement of the laws, in the judgement of the referee a try would have been scored had the infringement not occurred. The try got its name because originally the touching down of the ball only gave you a "try" at scoring by successfully kicking for goal, which were the only points scored if the kick was good.
• After scoring a try, the scoring team attempts a conversion: a player takes a kick at goal in line with where the ball was touched down. Scoring the goal earns 2 points.
• Kicking the ball above the crossbar and between the uprights of a large 'H'-shaped set of posts. This may either occur from a penalty kick or drop kicked. In the latter case, the ball must strike the ground before being kicked (a drop goal). Both types of goal score 3 points.

Goal kicking is a major part of the game, with games being won and lost at these situations. An attacking team with an accurate goal kicker can punish transgressions anywhere in the defending team's half, and sometimes further out. This threat puts more pressure on the defence as they have to avoid giving away penalties.

[edit] The Running Game

Running rugby occurs when a team attempts to progress forward by running with, and passing, the ball. The ball can be passed in-line or backwards, but cannot travel forward. A scrum is awarded to the opponent team when a non-voluntary forward pass occurs, or when the ball is poorly caught and "knocked-on" the ground towards the opponent's goal line. There is an exception to this rule: a player charging a kicking opponent who blocks his kick does not "knock-on" the ball and the games carry on. A deliberate forward pass or a deliberate pass that directly ends in touch is punished by a penalty kick to the opposing team.

There are three basic methods of running rugby: A drive around a ruck or a scrum is usually performed by the forwards and is intended to break the defensive line using weight and force. The player runs directly into the opponents, protecting the ball possess when the contact occurs. This play usually produces a slow but safe advance and sometimes is aimed to absorb defenders in the subsequent rucks to contest the ball, opening gaps in the defensive lines for the backs.

Alternatively, the ball leaves a ruck, a scrum or a line-out by a longer pass from the scrum-half to the fly-half, who then chooses to pass the ball to the backs where "open play" occurs. The backs run forward, attempting to dodge and overrun opponents or, if a tackle cannot be avoided, waiting until the last moment to let the most defenders close in before making a lateral pass to a teammate (an "offload") or taking the tackle to start a ruck. A good set of backs will vary the angle and points of attack of their runs, so as to receive the ball in a position that will enable them to run through the gaps in the opposing defence.

Finally, there is the counterattack: a player receives a kicked ball behind his own 22m line and elects to run instead of kicking the ball forward. This "counterattack" run is useful for surprising opponents expecting a kick. It also has the advantage for the ball carrier, who will, at least initially, be surrounded by more space than usual, as many of the kicker's teammates may be offside.

[edit] The Breakdown

The aim of the defending side is to stop the player with the ball, either by bringing them to ground (a tackle, which is frequently followed by a ruck), or contesting for possession with the ball-carrier on their feet (a maul). Such circumstances are known by the collective name of "the breakdown", and each is governed by a specific law.

[edit] Tackle

A player may tackle an opposing player who has the ball by holding him while bringing him to ground. If a ball carrier is held by an opposition player but still has forward momentum he may continue to slide over the goal-line and score a try. One knee touching the ground, or the ball touching the ground, is sufficient for a ball carrier to be deemed to be grounded. A tackled player must release the ball, either by passing to a team mate or placing it on the ground, and the tackler must release him and move away, allowing the ball to become available, or for a ruck to form. If the ball-carrier is not brought to ground, then it is not a tackle and a maul might form. Players often deliberately go to ground rather than allow a maul to form, to take advantage of the rules governing rucks.

There are a number of laws governing how to tackle, the most notable of which are that the tackler cannot tackle above the shoulder (the neck and head are out of bounds), and the tackler has to attempt to wrap his arms around the player being tackled to complete the tackle. It is illegal to trip a player using feet or legs, but hands may be used (this being referred to as a tap-tackle or ankle-tap).

[edit] Ruck

A ruck [1] is a contest for possession. Once a tackle has grounded a player, he must release the ball and try to move out of the way, as must the tackler. The first player(s) arriving from either side may pick up the ball; however as soon as two players, one from each side, bind together — usually by locking shoulders as they face each other — with the ball at their feet they have formed a ruck. As more players arrive they may join the ruck, but must do so from the last or back foot (also known as the "gate") of their own side. In a ruck no player may use his hands to win the ball, instead each side attempts to push the other side back, and players use their feet to hook the ball backwards towards their own side — an action known as "rucking the ball" where it will be picked up by the scrum-half or half-back who waits behind the ruck. Players in a ruck may not deliberately go to ground themselves. If the ball becomes trapped in a ruck, the referee awards a scrum to the side going forward.

Most infringements occur in rucks. Players may seek to slow down the speed of the recycling of the opposition's ball or speed up their own by using their hands illegally, or by lying over the ball, or going to ground deliberately. Such infringements result in penalties. If the attacking team loses possession by legal means, either because of the attacking player dropping the ball or a defending player stealing it, then the ball is said to have been "turned over". After a turnover, play carries on without stopping, and the attacker/defender roles of the two teams are switched.

The ruck and the maul are the two phases of the game where the offside law is particularly important. Any player not taking part in the ruck and maul must retreat behind the "offside line", a notional line that runs through rearmost foot of a player in the ruck/maul, parallel to the goal lines.

[edit] Maul

A maul [2] occurs when a player carrying the ball is held by one or more opponents, and one or more of the ball carrier's team mates bind on the ball carrier. Once a maul has formed other players may join in but, as in a ruck, they must do so from their own side. If the maul stops moving forward, and the ball is not available to be played, then the referee awards a scrum to the side not in possession when the maul began (unless the maul was formed immediately after a player received a kick other than a kick-off). The tactic of the rolling maul occurs when mauls are set up, and the ball is passed backwards through the players' hands to one at the rear, who rolls off the side to change the direction of the drive. This tactic can be extremely effective in gaining ground and takes great skill and technique both to do properly and to try to prevent. It is a tactic most commonly used when the attacking side is inside their opponents' 22-m line. It is illegal, on safety grounds, to pull down a maul, so that players fall to the ground. Referees are aware that many sides will try to stop a maul by deliberately collapsing it and will watch carefully for this illegal tactic. On the other hand, a maul is not properly formed if the ball carrier binds on to a team-mate from the rear, and both of them then drive into one or more opponents. The player in front is either accidentally or deliberately offside and the referee awards either a scrum or a penalty to the opposing side, depending on whether the infringement was viewed as accidental or deliberate. The tactic is sometimes referred to by players, commentators, and referees by the colloquial term "truck and trailer".

[edit] Offside at the Breakdown

When a maul or ruck occurs, anyone who is not behind the back foot of all teammates who are involved is offside, and may not take part in the game. An offside player who takes part in the game is punished with penalty kick; if he shows no intention to play from his position, however, no penalty is awarded. In general the offside rule applies only if the ball has been kicked, or if a ruck, maul or set piece is taking place. In open, running play, there is no notion of offside; however, an attacking player who is in front of the ball carrier and interferes with the play may be guilty of obstruction.

[edit] The kicking game

In specific situations it is common to kick the ball rather than attempt to make progress with ball in hand. This will usually be done to obtain a territorial advantage, relieve pressure in defense, or turn the opposition and create disarray in their defensive ranks.

When the team has the ball behind its own 22-meter line it is important to relieve pressure and gain a better field position. The most common course of action is to kick the ball directly in touch as long as possible. This kick is usually performed by the fly-half if the ball was secured at a set piece or breakdown, or by the fullback or a wing if the ball was received from an opponent's kick. Due to the fact that a line-out occurs when the ball is in touch, making a surprise counterattack from the opposing team unlikely, it is generally better to get a "short and sure" line-out than a long but more dangerous kick.

When there seems little prospect of progressing with running rugby in the midfield a player, frequently the scrum-half, the fly-half, or a center, kicks the ball to move it into an undefended spot of the field, forcing the opponents to leave their positions to recover and play it. This kick usually travels fast and low, and fly-halves who perform it usually try to hit the ground just before the side line and then bounce the ball in touch, thus producing a line-out far away.

An "up and under" kick is performed as an attack option. The kicker, usually the fullback, kicks the ball high and short, and then charges to contest possession. The "cross kick" is a variation of this play that is becoming increasingly common: a slow kick from the fly-half travels diagonally forward and is caught in the opponent's goal zone by a fast teammate.

A "grubber" kick is a short, low kick in which the ball rolls on the ground. It's a common play for a wing close to the touch-line and can be very effective if the opponent's goal line is close and the defenders are still in front of the kicker (thus being easier to overrun). In addition, the shape of the rugby ball means that an unfortunate bounce can leave the defenders looking foolish.

The kicking game is generally considered the sole preserve of the backs. Exceptions do occur, however, and many forwards like to demonstrate their kicking prowess during practice sessions. Flanker John Taylor kicked a famous penalty for Wales in the 1971 Five Nations, lock John Eales occasionally kicked goals for Australia and All Blacks Number 8 Zinzan Brooke even scored a drop goal from the midfield.

[edit] Offside after a kick

When a ball is kicked, any teammates in front of the kicker are offside. An offside player becomes onside when the kicker, or a teammate who is not offside, runs past him, or when an opponent either catches the ball and runs 5 meters with it or unsuccessfully attempts to play the ball. Any offside player within 10 meters of where the ball will land must immediately retreat to that distance until played onside by a teammate.

[edit] Set-pieces

Set-pieces are used to restart play after a stoppage. They are, principally:

[edit] Restart kicks

At the start of each half, one side kicks off. One side, determined following the toss of a coin, takes a drop kick from the middle of the centre line to start the first half. The ball must travel at least 10 m into the opposition half. The other team kicks off the second half. The kicking side frequently kicks the ball high and aims to drop it just over the 10-m minimum, which is marked by a dashed line across the pitch. This tactic gives their players time to chase the lobbed ball and hope to catch it before the defenders can do so. Alternatively the kick may be a long kick deep into opposition territory, sacrificing the chance to regain possession for territorial gain. A restart kick that does not cross the 10 m line can be played by the receiving team, but not by the kicking team or a midfield scrum is awarded to the receiving team. A restart kick that crosses the side lines without being touched awards the receiving team either a midfield scrum or a line out on the half way line, receiving team option.

Similarly, there is also a 22-m drop-out. This is awarded if the attacking side is responsible for sending the ball into the in-goal area, but instead of their player grounding the ball and scoring a try it is first grounded by a defender. If the ball is kicked into the in-goal area by the attackers and instead of being grounded there by either side it continues, under its own momentum, through the in-goal area and crosses the dead-ball line, then the defenders have the option of choosing either a 22-m drop out or a scrum at the place where the attackers kicked the ball. The 22-m drop out is taken at any point along (or behind) the 22-m line.

[edit] Penalty Kicks and Free kicks

Penalty kicks are awarded for dangerous play, deliberate infringement of the Laws and offsides. A penalty kick may either be used to attempt a penalty goal, kick into touch (either directly or indirectly, in both cases the kicking team throws-in the ball at the ensuing line-out) or tapped with the foot (giving the kicking player possession of the ball). In each case, the opponents must retire to a distance 10m from the point at which the penalty is awarded.

A free kick is awarded for technical infringements that do not warrant a penalty. A free kick differs from a penalty in that it cannot be used for an attempt at goal. If the ball goes into touch, the kicking team does not receive the throw at the ensuing lineout. When kicked directly into touch (i.e. without bouncing) there is no gain in ground from the free kick unless it was taken from behind the kicking team's 22 meter line.

A free kick is also awarded when a player catches an opponent's kick on or behind his own 22m line and shouts the word "mark".

[edit] Scrum

Main article: Scrum (rugby)

A scrum [3] is a way of restarting the game safely and fairly after an accidental infringement such as a knock-on (where a player drops the ball forwards) or a forward pass occurs. It's also awarded to the passing or kicking team if the ball hits a referee.

A scrum is formed by the eight forwards from each team binding together in three rows. The front row, consisting of the two props (loosehead and tighthead, usually the largest men on the field) and the hooker, 'prop' the scrum up and 'hook' the ball so it can get back to the scrum half or number 9. The two locks in the second row provide the power to drive the scrum forward, and the two flankers (blindside and openside) and number 8 are loosely bound, so they can support the backs when the ball gets out as fast as possible. Occasionally, all eight forwards will be called upon to drive, usually near the goal-line as the attacking team attempts to drive the opponent's scrum over the goal-line and score what is known as a "pushover try."

The two packs of forwards engage with each other so that their heads are interlocked with those of the other side's front row. The loosehead props are so called because they occupy the positions at each end of the interlocked front rows. The scrum half from the team that did not infringe stands on his team's loosehead side and throws the ball into the tunnel between the two front rows; the hookers compete for possession by hooking the ball backwards with their feet, while each pack tries to push the opposing pack backwards to gain possession easier. The side that wins possession usually transfers the ball to the back of the scrum, where it is picked up either by the number 8 or by the scrum half. Either the scrum half or the number 8 can pass the ball to the backs or run the ball at the opposing team. Normal play then resumes. A scrum has to be awarded between the 5 m lines along the goal and touch lines: this prevents an easy try and allows safe play. A new rule has been introduced in 2007 regarding rugby union scrums where the referee would now give four commands instead of three. The old command of "crouch, hold, engage" has been replaced by "crouch, touch, pause, and engage". In addition to the engagement sequence, front rows cannot engage with their head and shoulders lower than their hips in a bid to stop collapsed scrums. Another key difference to the current sequence is that the two props have to touch their opposition number's shoulder. The new rule was brought in because of the injuries which the props faced to their necks and spine when they engaged in a scrum, the new rule limiting the distance between the engaging sides and therefore the maximum speed of engagement.

[edit] Line-out

Main article: Line-out

When the ball goes into touch (i.e. outside of the area of play) the referee calls a line-out at the point where the ball crossed the touchline. There are two exceptions for this rule. (1) No line-out is awarded closer than 5 m to opponent team goal line, if the ball crosses the touch closer the throw-in occurs on 5 m line (2) If a kick goes directly into touch and the kicker is outside his own 22m line the throw-in occurs where the ball was kicked. The forwards of each team (though not necessarily all of them, their number is throwing-in team option) line up a metre apart, perpendicular to the touchline and between 5m and 15m from the touchline. The ball is thrown from the touchline down the centre of the lines of forwards by a player (usually the hooker) from the team that did not play the ball into touch. The exception to this is when the ball went out from a penalty, in which case the side who gained the penalty throws the ball in. There is an advantage to being the team throwing the ball as that team then knows where along the line the throw is aimed. If the ball passes over the 15m line, it can be played by everyone and the line-out is over: if the ball is not thrown straight down the middle of the line-out, the non-infringing team may choose to have the put-in to either a new line-out or a scrum 15m infield.

Both sides compete for the ball, and some players may lift their teammates. (While the laws say that jumping players may only be supported, lifting is uniformly tolerated under specified conditions). A jumping player cannot be tackled until he stands and only shoulder-to-shoulder contact is allowed: deliberate infringement of this Law is dangerous play, and results in a penalty kick, and frequently a trip to the sin bin. If a penalty kick is awarded during a line-out and the line out is not over, it is taken 15m from the touch line.

[edit] Offside at the set-piece

All players not taking part in a scrum or line-out must remain onside, or run the risk of conceding a penalty kick. At a scrum the scrum-half must remain behind the ball at all times, and the remaining backs must remain behind the back foot last player in the scrum. At the line-out, all players not taking part must move 10m from the line, and remain there until the line-out is over. At a restart kick, free kick or penalty, the kickers teammates must remain behind the kicker, and the opposition must usually retreat 10m. The exception is a drop-out, where the receiving team need only be on their own side of the 22m line.the scrum half maust remain 10 metres back from th lineout.

[edit] Possible alterations to the laws

Main article: Stellenbosch Laws

Alterations to the laws of rugby union are currently being trialled by students of Stellenbosch University in South Africa though no changes are expected to be made before 2008. [4] Among the most important proposed changes are:

• Players may use their hands at the breakdown, as long as they enter the breakdown in an onside position.
• At the scrum, all backs except for the two scrum-halves must stay at least 5 metres behind the back foot of the scrum (or, if the defending team in a 5-metre scrum, behind the try line).
• Each team may use as many players in the line-out as it wishes, as long as all fit within the 15-metre line.
• The opposing hooker need not stay within 5 metres of the touchline, but must otherwise conform to laws where he stands.
• Defending teams may collapse a maul.
• If the ball is run or passed behind a team's own 22-metre line, and is then kicked into touch on the full, the ensuing line-out will be conducted at the spot of the kick. (If the same kick goes into touch on the bounce, the line-out will be conducted where the ball went into touch, as in the current laws.)

[edit] History

Main article: History of rugby union

Rugby is a very complex attack and defence strategy game involving highly developed skill and tactics. The origin of rugby football is often credited to a young man named William Webb Ellis who "took the ball in his arms [i.e. caught the ball] and ran" while playing a form of football at Rugby school in 1823. However historians have questioned the authenticity of this story, beginning with an official investigation by the Old Rugbeian Society in 1895. Nonetheless, the trophy for the Rugby World Cup bears the name of "Webb Ellis" in his honour, and a plaque at the school commemorates the "achievement". Playing football has a long tradition in England, and football games had probably taken place at Rugby school for 200 years before three boys published the first set of written rules in 1845. However, the game they presented resembled "Hurling to Goal" a variant of the Celtic sport of hurling, described by Richard Carew in his 1602 work, 'Survey of Cornwall'. Cornish hurlers travelled to London to player 'demonstration matches' of the sport several times in the seventeenth century.

Until the formation of the Football Association (FA) in October 1863 opposing football teams agreed on a set of rules before each match. Teams that competed against each other regularly tended to agree to play a similar style of football.

Rugby football has a claim to the world's first "football clubs": the Barnes Club (as it was known), formed in London in 1839, and Guy's Hospital Football Club (1843). However the continuity of these two clubs has not been established by documentation. Dublin University Football Club is the world's oldest documented football club in any code, having been formed in 1854; it currently plays rugby union in the All Ireland League Division Two. Likewise Edinburgh Academical Football Club was formed in Scotland in 1857-58. Blackheath Rugby Club was founded in 1858 and is the oldest documented rugby club in England. It was a founding member of The Football Association. When it became clear that the FA would not allow running with the ball in hand and to "charge, hold, trip or hack him, or to wrest the ball from him" (hack to kicking opposition players' legs, a feature of the rugby game at the time), Blackheath withdrew from the FA, just over a month after the initial meeting. Other rugby clubs followed this lead and did not join the FA.

For the next few years rugby clubs continued to agree on rules before the start of each game as they had always done, but on January 26, 1871, the Rugby Football Union (RFU) formed, leading to the standardisation of the rules for all clubs in England that played a variety of the Rugby school laws. Soon most countries with a sizeable rugby community had formed their own national unions. In 1886, the International Rugby Board (IRB) become the world governing and law-making body for rugby. The RFU recognised it as such in 1890.

The introduction of rugby into New Zealand was by Charles John Monro, son of Sir David Monro, then speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives. The younger Monro had been sent to Christ's College, East Finchley, in north London, England. That school had adopted rugby rules and Monro became an enthusiastic convert. He brought the game back to his native Nelson, and arranged the first rugby match, between Nelson College and Nelson Football Club, on May 14, 1870. In North America, rugby developed into American football and into Canadian football.

The 1890s saw a clash of cultures within the game, between working men's rugby clubs of northern England and the southern clubs of gentlemen, a dispute revolving around the nature of professionalism within the game. On August 29, 1895 22 clubs split from the RFU and met at the George Hotel in Huddersfield to form the Northern Rugby Football Union, commonly called the Northern Union. NRFU rules gradually diverged from those of rugby union, although the name rugby league did not become official until the Northern Rugby League formed in 1901. The name Rugby Football League dates from 1922. A similar schism opened up in Australia and other rugby-playing nations. Initially, rugby league in Australia operated under the same rules as rugby union. But after a tour by a professional New Zealand team in 1907 of Australia and Great Britain, and an Australian Rugby League tour of Great Britain the next year, rugby league teams in the southern hemisphere adopted rugby league rules. For clarity and convenience it became necessary to differentiate the two codes of rugby. The code played by those teams who remained in national organisations which were members of the IRB became known as "rugby union". The code played by those teams which played "open" rugby and allowed professionals as well as amateurs became known as "rugby league".

On August 26, 1995 the IRB declared rugby union an "open" game and removed all restrictions on payments or benefits to those connected with the game. It did this because of a committee conclusion that to do so was the only way to end the hypocrisy of Shamateurism and to keep control of rugby union (there were rumours that Rupert Murdoch was planning to finance a Southern Hemisphere professional league). The move from amateurism to professionalism has undoubtedly increased the quality of rugby being played. However, professionalism has meant a huge increase in the gap between the top nations and the second tier. Alongside the success stories there have been some famous rugby clubs which have not coped well with the new era. Increasing popularity in recent years has led to diversification, Women's rugby is increasingly popular in the US and Canada.

The professionalisation of rugby union has created a larger and more international supporter base than before and very large crowds in international competitions. Sponsorship and club attendance is also increasing in rugby union, with many English premiership clubs seeking to expand heir existing ground capacity. Attendances for major international rugby union matches are generally sell-outs. As rugby union has grown, the increased funds generated have allowed the opportunity for big money deals bringing top-level rugby league players over to rugby union.

[edit] Major international tournaments

The most important tournament in rugby union is the Rugby World Cup, a men's tournament that take place every four years between the elite national rugby union teams. The tournament is one of the top three international sporting events in the world, with the FIFA World Cup and the Summer Olympics being the largest.^{[6] [7]} England are the current world champions, winning the 2003 tournament held in Australia. The fact that four countries have won the last five World Cups confirms the level of competition in the tournament, creating intense interest from supporters, the media and major sponsors. The women's World Cup event takes place every four years as well. Major international competitions in the northern and southern hemisphere are the Six Nations Championship and the Tri Nations Series, respectively.

The Six Nations is an annual competition involving England, France, Ireland, Italy, Scotland and Wales. Each country plays the other five once, the modern tournament traces its roots to the first ever international game, when England lost by one goal to Scotland at Raeburn Place, Edinburgh in 1871. In the 1880s, Wales and Ireland joined to create the Home International Championships. France joined the tournament in the 1900s and in 1910 the term Five Nations first appeared. However, the Home Nations (England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales) excluded France in 1931 amid a run of poor results, allegations of professionalism (rugby union was officially amateur until 1995) and concerns over on-field violence. France then rejoined in 1939-1940, though World War II halted proceedings for a further eight years. France has played in all the tournaments since WWII, the first one of which was played in 1947. In 2000, Italy became the sixth nation in the contest.

The Tri Nations Series is an annual international rugby union series held between Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. The series was initially played on a home and away basis with the three nations playing each other twice. In 2006 a new system was introduced where each nation plays the others three times rather than two. In 2007 the teams will play each other only twice, as it is a world cup year. Amidst all the rugby union competitions are also the autumn and summer Tests, which take place between September to December and June to August. These are played by the major rugby union nations on a home or away basis.

[edit] Coaching

In the last 20 years, the major unions, as well as the IRB, have understood the need to develop a core of coaches for the junior, youth and community game^{[citation needed]}. Coaches in the professional game have tended to come from ex-players^{[citation needed]}.

In terms of the way rugby is coached, there is a move away from coach-centred instruction to player-centred learning^{[citation needed]}. These methods are increasingly being used by the top coaches to get their players to perform at the highest level^{[citation needed]}.

At the youngest age, the debate remains over the amount of contact that should take place and at what age^{[citation needed]}. Some suggest that tackling should be taught as young as possible^{[citation needed]}, but others, including Danny Grewcock recently said that his longevity in the game was due to little contact at an early age^{[citation needed]}.

Some famous and respected coaches in the game include Danie Craven, Kitch Christie, Jake White, Nick Mallett, Jim Telfer, Wayne Smith, Carwyn James, Rod Macqueen, Graham Henry, Sir Clive Woodward and Eddie O'Sullivan.

[edit] See also

• List of notable rugby union footballers by country
• List of notable rugby union footballers in alphabetical order
• List of international rugby union teams
• International Rugby Hall of Fame
• Rugby union at the Summer Olympics
• Rugby Sevens
• Tag Rugby
• Touch Rugby
• Comparison of American football and rugby union
• Comparison of rugby league and rugby union

[edit] References

• The Laws of Rugby Union
• Scrum.com Rugby guide
• Rugby15.co.uk RFU Laws

[edit] External links

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