Religion and sexuality

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Sexual morality varies greatly over time and between cultures. A society's sexual norms — standards of sexual conduct — can be linked to religious beliefs, or social and environmental conditions. Sexuality and reproduction are fundamental elements in human interaction and society worldwide. Accordingly, most religions have seen a need to address the question of a "proper" role for sexuality in human interactions. Different religions have different codes of sexual morality, which regulate sexual activity or assign normative values to certain sexually charged actions or thoughts.

Contents 1 Overview 2 Abrahamic religions and sexuality 2.1 Judaism and sexuality 2.1.1 Levels of modesty required according to Orthodox Judaism 2.1.2 In Conservative Judaism 2.1.3 In Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism 2.2 Christianity and sexuality 2.2.1 Catholic and Orthodox Churches 2.2.2 Protestant and Anglican Churches 2.3 Islam and sexuality 3 Hinduism and sexuality 4 Buddhism and sexuality 5 Neopaganism and sexuality 6 Spreading sexual morality to non-adherents 7 See also 8 References 9 Footnotes 10 Further reading 10.1 In Buddhism 10.2 In Judaism 10.3 Critical perspectives 11 External links

[edit] Overview

The views of religions and religious believers range widely, from holding that sex and the flesh are evil to the belief that sex is the highest expression of the divine. Views on sexuality may not even be shared among adherents of a particular sect. Some religions distinguish between sexual activities that are practiced for biological reproduction (sometimes allowed only when in formal marital status and at a certain age), and other activities practiced for sexual pleasure as immoral.

Although a popular hypothesis holds that a high degree of societal religiosity correlates with lower rates of non-monogamous sexual activity, a 2005 summary of various studies found that rates of sexually transmitted diseases, abortion, and early adolescent pregnancy are in fact lower in secular societies. ^[1]

[edit] Abrahamic religions and sexuality

Different-sex sexuality, and specifically procreation, is currently viewed as the ideal by some members of the Abrahamic religions. They sanction monogamous and committed different-sex relationships within marriage. The Jewish Hebrew Bible prohibits adultery and different-sex intercourse during the period of Niddah or menses.

[edit] Judaism and sexuality

Main articles: Tzniut, Niddah, Yichud, Negiah, and Jewish views of homosexuality

Traditional Judaism prohibits sexual relations outside of heterosexual marriage, maintains biblical strictures on relations within marriage including observance of Niddah, a prohibition on relations on a period including the menstrual period, and Tzniut, requirements of modest dress and behavior. Traditional Judaism views adultery, incest, and male homosexuality as grave sins. See Jewish views of homosexuality. Judaism permits relatively free divorce, with Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism requiring a religious divorce ceremony for a divorce to be religiously recognized. More liberal branches of Judaism have adapted perspectives more consistent with contemporary general secular culture.

As a core aspect of Jewish law is the love of the body, sex in general is not viewed in a negative way since it is possibly the greatest way possible to love your body.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Levels of modesty required according to Orthodox Judaism

Main article: Tzniut

There are several levels to the observance of physical and personal modesty (tzniut) according to Orthodox Judaism as derived from various sources in halakha Observance of these rules varies from aspirational to mandatory to routine across the spectrum of Orthodox stricture and observance.

• A prohibition on dwelling on lascivious or immoral thoughts.
• A prohibition on staring at members of the opposite sex, particularly at the reproductive anatomy.
• A requirement to keep most of one's body clothed in respectable clothing.
• A requirement to avoid the company of uncouth individuals and avoid frequenting places where an atmosphere of levity and depravity prevails.
• A prohibition on looking at pictures or scenes that will be sexually arousing.
• A prohibition on touching a person of the opposite sex, especially in a lingering arousing manner (shaking hands very quickly in greeting between sexes is a point of dispute, and depends on one's rabbi's halachic decision).
• A prohibition on wearing the clothing of a member of the opposite sex.
• A prohibition on looking at animals or birds copulating.
• A prohibition on erotically hugging (chibuk) or kissing (nishuk) one's spouse in public,
• A prohibition on sexual contact or touching between spouses when the wife is a niddah ("menstruant") or has not immersed in a mikvah following the niddah period.
• A prohibition on seclusion with a person of the opposite sex who is not a spouse or close relative (Yichud)
• A requirement that men and women be separated during prayer, dancing, and on certain other occasions Mechitza)
• A prohibition on hotza'at zera levatala -- "excreting semen in vain" by men (masturbation is not prohibited for women).
• A prohibition on sex with between men, or with any type of animal, or with a corpse.

Orthodox Judaism also maintains a strong prohibition on interfaith sexual relations and marriage.

Orthodox Jews tend to have a lower intermarriage rate than their conservative and Reform counterparts. The 1990 National Jewish Population Survey indicated that of all the Jewish denominations, Orthodox Jews alone had a lower intermarriage rate in the 18-39 age category (3%) vs. the 40+ category (10%), compared with 37% vs. 10% for Conservative Jews, 53% vs. 10% for Reform Jews, and 72% vs. 39% for secular Jews. ^[2] A Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs report showed that Orthodox Judaism had doubled among synagogue-affiliated Jews in the United States, from 10% in 1990 to 21.8% in 2001, and that most of this growth was in the stricter Haredi Judaism as opposed to Modern Orthodox Judaism. It speculated that this trend may have been related to a general trend towards greater religious and social traditionalism, as well as due to earlier marriage and higher birth rates in Orthodox families consistent with more traditional sexual behavior. ^[3] Orthodox Judaism, alone of all the Jewish denominations, retains relatively mild traditional disabilities on divorce, including a Biblical prohibition on a Kohen (priestly descendant of Aaron) marrying a divorcee or a women who has engaged in certain types of sexual misconduct. These strictures, while observed, are generally regarded as matters of personal status rather than morality. An Orthodox bill of divorce is required for a divorce to be recognized.

[edit] In Conservative Judaism

Conservative Judaism, consistent with its general view that Halakha (Jewish law) is a binding guide to Jewish life but subject to periodic revision by the Rabbinate, has lifted a number of strictures observed by Orthodox Judaism. In particular, in December 2006, Conservative Judaism's Committee on Jewish Law and Standards adopted responsa presenting diametrically opposed views on the issue of homosexuality. It adopted an opinion restricting a prior prohibition on homosexual conduct to male-male anal sex only, which it declared to be the only Biblical prohibition, declaring all other prohibitions (e.g. male-male oral sex or lesbian sex) rabbinic, and lifting all rabbinic restrictions as part of its power of Rabbinic review and revision of earlier rabbinic decrees. While declining to develop a form of religious gay marriage, it permitted blessing lesbian and gay unions and ordaining openly lesbian and gay rabbis who agree not to engage in male-male anal sex. ^[4] It also adopted an opinion upholding a traditional prohibition on male homosexual activity. The approach permits individual rabbis, congregations, and rabbinical schools to set their own policy on male homosexual conduct. It reflects a profound change from a prior blanket prohibition on male homosexual practices. It acknowledges a sharp divergence of views on sexual matters within Conservative Judaism, such that there is no single Conservative Jewish approach to matters of sexuality. Conservative Judaism currently straddles the divide between liberal and traditional opinion on sexual matters within contemporary American society, permitting both views. ^[5][6]

Conservative Judaism has maintained on its books a variety of modesty requirements and prohibitions, including a requirement that married women observe the laws of Niddah (refraining from sex during and shortly after their menstrual period and immersing in a Mikvah prior to resuming relations) and a general prohibition on nonmarital heterosexual conduct. It has, however, tended to construe them narrowly. The permissive responsum on homosexuality used the Conservative movement's limitation of restrictions on marital relations during the niddah period to sexual intercourse only as an analogy for construing the Biblical prohibition against male homosexual conduct narrowly and lifting restrictions it deemed Rabbinic in nature. The responsum also indicated it would be making a practical analogy between an approach in which male homosexual couples would be on their honor to refrain from certain acts and its approach to Niddah:

We expect homosexual students to observe the rulings of this responsum in the same way that we expect heterosexual students to observe the CJLS rulings on niddah. We also expect that interview committees, administrators, faculty and fellow students will respect the privacy and dignity of gay and lesbian students in the same way that they respect the privacy and dignity of heterosexual students.

The responsum enjoined young people not to be "promiscuous" and to prepare themselves for "traditional marriage" if possible, while not explicitly lifting or re-enforcing any express strictures on non-marital heterosexual conduct. ^[7].

Even before this responsum, strictures on pre-marital sex had been substantially ignored, even in official circles. For example, when the Jewish Theological Seminary proposed enforcing a policy against non-marital cohabitation by rabbinical students in the 1990s, protests by cohabiting rabbinical students resulted in a complete rescission of the policy.

Conservative Judaism formally prohibits interfaith marriage and its standards currently indicate it will expel a Rabbi who performs an interfaith marriage. It maintains a variety of formal strictures including a prohibition on making birth announcements in synagogue bulletins for children on non-Jewish mothers and accepting non-Jewish individuals as synagogue members. However, interfaith marriage is relatively widespread among the Conservative laity, and the Conservative movement has recently adapted a policy of being more welcoming of interfaith couples in the hopes of interesting their children in Judaism, and is considering relaxing some of its strictures.

Conservative Judaism, which was for much of the 20th century the largest Jewish denomination in the United States declined sharply in synagogue membership in the United States the 1990s, from 51% of synagogue memberships in 1990 to 33.1% in 2001, with most of the loss going to Orthodox Judaism and most of the rest to Reform. The fracturing in American society of opinion between increasingly liberal and increasingly traditionalist viewpoints on sexual and other issues, as well as the gap between official opinion and general lay practice vis-a-vis the more traditionalist and liberal denominations, may have contributed to the decline. ^[8]

[edit] In Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism

Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism do not observe or require traditional sexuality rules and have welcomed non married and homosexual couples and endorsed homosexual commitment ceremonies and marriages.

Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism are more tolerant of interfaith marriage, and many rabbis in both communities will perform one. Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism also do not require a religious divorce ceremony separate from a civil divorce.

It has been speculated that the more tolerant attitudes of Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism towards both sexual diversity and interfaith marriage may have contributed to the rise in their popularity during the 1990s, from about 33% of affiliated households to 38%, making it pass Conservative Judaism as the largest Jewish denomination in the United States. ^[9]

[edit] Christianity and sexuality

See also: Homosexuality and Christianity

In Christianity, despite the wide variations between different Christian denominations, which often specifically include different views of sexuality, it is possible to draw a general picture of the underlying views and Biblical doctrines.

The basis of many Christian views comes from the idea that human sexuality was created by God with the twin purposes of procreation and intimacy—bringing a sexually active couple into a close emotional and spiritual relationship through the close physical relationship. As such, it should be restricted lifelong relationship between a man and a woman. Marriage is a commitment to a close and lasting relationship and a basis on which to build a stable family. Because of the emphasis on the procreative function of sex, relationships and specific acts that do not lead to conception are frowned upon or expressly forbidden in some denominations.

Most Christian denominations now accept contraception within marriage.

According to most Christian teachings, engaging in sodomy is considered sinful. However some Christian churches and denominations are open and affirming of homosexuals. Liberal Christians argue that the ancient teachings against premarital and extramarital sex were misread throughout previous centuries. According to this faith, the New Testament does not prohibit unmarried sexual activities. Liberal Christians are more concerned with the nature of the sexual relationship.^[10]

[edit] Catholic and Orthodox Churches

Main article: Theology of the Body

The Catholic Church affirms the sanctity of all human life, from conception to natural death. The Church believes that each person is made in the "image and likeness of God," and that human life should not be weighed against other values such as economy, convenience, personal preferences, or social engineering. Therefore, the Church opposes activities that they believe destroy or devalue divinely created life, including euthanasia, eugenics and abortion.

The Church teaches that Manichaeism, the belief that the spirit is good while the flesh is evil, is a heresy. Therefore, the Church does not teach that sex is sinful or an impairment to a grace-filled life. "And God saw every thing that he had made, and, behold, it was very good."^[11] then the human body and sex must likewise be good. The Catechism teaches that "the flesh is the hinge of salvation."^[12]

However the Church does teach that sexuality outside of marriage is a capital sin because it violates the purpose of human sexuality to participate in the "conjugal act" before one is actually married. The conjugal act "aims at a deeply personal unity, a unity that, beyond union in one flesh, leads to forming one heart and soul" (Catechism 1643) since the marriage bond is to be a sign of the love between God and humanity (Catechism 1617).

Pope John Paul II's first major teaching was on the Theology of the Body. Over the course of five years he elucidated a vision of sex that was not only positive and affirming but was about redemption, not condemnation. He taught that by understanding God's plan for physical love we could understand "the meaning of the whole of existence, the meaning of life."^[13] "The body, and it alone, is capable of making visible what is invisible: the spiritual and divine. It was created to transfer into the visible reality of the world the mystery hidden since time immemorial in God, and thus to be a sign of it.

The Catechism of the Catholic Church indicates that sexual relationships in marriage as a way of imitating in the flesh the Creator's generosity and fecundity [1] and lists fornication as one of the "Offenses Against Chastity" [2] and calls it "an intrinsically and gravely disordered action" because "use of the sexual faculty, for whatever reason, outside of marriage is essentially contrary to its purpose."^[14]

[edit] Protestant and Anglican Churches

In many Lutheran, Reformed and United churches of the EKD in Germany and in the Netherlands or Switzerland and in the Lutheran church of Sweden is today a different, liberal view of homosexuality. In these Lutheran, United and Reformed churches (Luther/Calvin) gay priests are permitted in ministry and gay couples get a blessing in their churches. Also in some Methodist churches (e.g. England, Canada, Germany) gay couples get a blessing in a church. Gay priests can marry their partners and can still work as priests.

In the Anglican church is a large discussion over the blessing of gay couples and over tolerance of homosexuality. Anglican (Episcopal) churches in Canada, USA or England permit gay priests in ministry and allow blessings (however Anglican churches in places such as eastern Africa have very conservative views over homosexuality). Gay priests in the Anglican church can marry their partners and can still work as priests.

There are also some evangelical churches (Southern Baptists (USA) for example) which still condemn homosexuality as a sin.

Sex outside of marriage is frowned upon as immoral behavior by fundamentalist and conservative Christian sects, churches and some fringe groups. Reactions to it are mixed, ranging from requiring penance all the way to total ostracism of those who participate in it. In general, marriage is promoted by Christianity, but sex outside of marriage, and sex for pleasure, are accepted by most progressive churches as normal human behavior.

Some translations of the New Testament forbid fornication: "Fornicators, idolaters, adulterers,... will not inherit the kingdom of God". ^[15]. The original Koine Greek word translated as fornication is porneia. The Greek term is used by some churches to include any form of sexual misconduct and there is some debate as to the precise meaning of the word, which in Classical Greek refers specifically to prostitution and is etymologically the same root as in the English "pornography", which literally means "writing of the harlot". Porneia is unlikely to translate as fornication. Many scholars translate it as immorality.

Fornication is thus illicit sex relations outside of Scriptural marriage. The Hebrew verb za·nah´ and its related forms convey the idea of harlotry, immoral intercourse, fornication, or prostitution. (Ge 38:24; Ex 34:16; Ho 1:2; Le 19:29) The Greek word translated “fornication” is por·nei´a. Regarding the meanings of por·nei´a, B. F. Westcott in his book Saint Paul’s Epistle to the Ephesians (1906, p. 76) says: “This is a general term for all unlawful intercourse, (I) adultery: Hos. ii. 2, 4 (LXX.); Matt. v. 32; xix. 9; (2) unlawful marriage, I Cor. v. I; (3) fornication, the common sense as here [Eph 5:3].” Bauer’s Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament (revised by F. W. Gingrich and F. Danker, 1979, p. 693) defines por·nei´a as “prostitution, unchastity, fornication, of every kind of unlawful sexual intercourse.” Porneia is understood to involve the grossly immoral use of the genital organ(s) of at least one human; also there must have been two or more parties (including another consenting human or a beast), whether of the same sex or the opposite sex. (Jude 7) The unlawful act of a rapist is fornication, but, of course, that does not make the person who is forcibly raped also a fornicator.

When God performed the first human marriage he said: “That is why a man will leave his father and his mother and he must stick to his wife and they must become one flesh.” (Ge 2:24) Here the standard set for man and woman was monogamy, and promiscuous sex relationship was ruled out. Also, no divorce and remarriage to another was anticipated.

In patriarchal society God’s faithful servants hated fornication, whether between single, engaged, or married persons, and it was considered a sin against God.—Ge 34:1, 2, 6, 7, 31; 38:24-26; 39:7-9.

Under the Law. Under the Mosaic Law, a man committing fornication with an unengaged girl was required to marry the girl and to pay her father the purchase price for brides (50 silver shekels; $110), and he could not divorce her all his days. Even if her father refused to give him the girl in marriage, the man had to pay the purchase price to the father. (Ex 22:16, 17; De 22:28, 29) However, if the girl was engaged, the man was to be stoned to death. If the girl screamed when she was attacked, she was not to be punished, but if the engaged girl failed to scream (thereby indicating consent), she was also put to death.—De 22:23-27.

The sanctity of marriage was emphasized by the law that punished with death a girl who married under the false pretense of being a virgin, having committed fornication secretly. If her husband falsely charged her with such a crime, it was regarded as bringing great reproach on her father’s house. For his slanderous action, the man was to be “disciplined” by the judges, perhaps by beating, and fined 100 silver shekels ($220), the money then being given to the father. (De 22:13-21) Prostitution of a priest’s daughter brought disgrace on his sacred office. She was to be killed, then burned as something detestable. (Le 21:9; see also Le 19:29.) Fornication between married persons (adultery) was a violation of the seventh commandment and merited the death penalty for both parties.—Ex 20:14; De 5:18; 22:22.

If a man committed fornication with a servant girl who had been designated for another man, but who had not been redeemed or freed, punishment was to take place, but they were not to be put to death. (Le 19:20-22) Evidently this was because the woman was not yet free and in full control of her actions, as a free engaged girl would be. The redemption price had not yet been paid, or at least not fully paid, and she was still a bondservant to her master.

When the mercenary prophet Balaam could not bring a curse upon Israel by divination, he found a way to bring them under God’s displeasure by appealing to wrong desire for sexual relations. By means of the women of Moab he seduced the Israelites into practicing the filthy phallic worship of the Baal of Peor, for which 24,000 of the sons of Israel died.—Nu 25:1-9; 1Co 10:8 (likely 1,000 heads of the people were killed and hung on stakes [Nu 25:4] and the rest were destroyed by the sword or the plague). Forbidden to Christians.

Jesus Christ restored God’s original standard of monogamy (Mt 5:32; 19:9) and showed the wickedness of fornication by classing it with murder, thievery, wicked reasoning, false testimony, and blasphemy. He pointed out that these come from within a man, from his heart, and defile him. (Mt 15:19, 20; Mr 7:21-23) Later, the governing body of the Christian congregation, comprised of the apostles and older men in Jerusalem, wrote to Christians in about 49 C.E., warning them against fornication, and placing it alongside idolatry and the eating of blood.—Ac 15:20, 29; 21:25.

The apostle Paul points out that fornication is one of the works of the flesh, the opposite of the fruitage of the spirit of God, and warns that the practice of fleshly works will prevent an individual from inheriting the Kingdom. (Ga 5:19-21) He counsels that the Christian should deaden his body “as respects fornication.” (Col 3:5) In fact, he warns that it should not even be a topic of conversation among Christians, who should be holy. Similarly, the Israelites were not to mention the names of the pagan gods—not that they would fail to warn their children about these gods, but they would not mention them with any esteem.—Eph 5:3; Ex 23:13.

Fornication is an offense for which an individual may be expelled (disfellowshipped) from the Christian congregation. (1Co 5:9-13; Heb 12:15, 16) The apostle explains that a Christian committing fornication sins against his own body, using reproductive members for a perverted purpose. He is greatly affected spiritually in an adverse way, brings defilement into God’s congregation, and lays himself open to the danger of deadly sexually transmitted diseases. (1Co 6:18, 19) He encroaches on the rights of his Christian brothers (1Th 4:3-7) by (1) bringing uncleanness and disgraceful folly, with reproach, into the congregation (Heb 12:15, 16), (2) depriving the one with whom he commits fornication of a clean moral standing and, if that one is single, of being clean when entering into marriage, (3) depriving his own family of a clean moral record, as well as (4) wronging the parents, husband, or fiancé of the one with whom he commits fornication. He disregards, not man, whose laws may or may not condone fornication, but God, who will exact punishment for his sin.—1Th 4:8.

Symbolic Use. Jehovah God spoke of the nation of Israel in covenant relationship to him as “a wife.” (Isa 54:5, 6) When the nation became unfaithful to him, ignoring him and turning to other nations such as Egypt and Assyria for help and entering into alliances with them, Israel was like an unfaithful wife, an adulteress, a prostitute, one carrying on fornication promiscuously. (Eze 16:15, 25-29) Likewise, if Christians in a dedicated relationship to God, or professing such a relationship, are unfaithful by engaging in false worship or by being friends of the world, they are called adulteresses.—Jas 4:4.

Concerning the symbolic meaning of por·nei´a in certain texts, F. Zorell (Lexicon Graecum Novi Testamenti, Paris, 1961, col. 1106) says: “Apostasy from the true faith, committed either entirely or partially, defection from the one true God Jahve to foreign gods [4Ki 9:22; Jer 3:2, 9; Ho 6:10 etc.; for God’s union with his people was considered like a kind of spiritual matrimony]: Re 14:8; 17:2, 4; 18:3; 19:2.”—Brackets his; 4Ki in the Greek Septuagint corresponds to 2Ki in the Masoretic text.

Babylon the Great, described in the Bible book of Revelation as a harlot, is a symbol of something religious. Her various sects, “Christian” and pagan, have claimed to be organizations of true worship. But she has consorted with the rulers of this world for power and material gain, and with her “the kings of the earth committed fornication.” Her unclean, filthy course of fornication has been detestable in God’s sight and has caused great bloodshed and distress in the earth. (Re 17:1-6; 18:3) For her course she will suffer the judgment of God on those practicing fornication, namely, destruction.—Re 17:16; 18:8, 9.

[edit] Islam and sexuality

Islam forbids celibacy as a form of religious practice, and considers the natural state for humans to be married. Muhammad himself was married several times.

Qur'anic verses made it legal for Muslim men to marry women from other Abrahamic religions (Jews and Christians). Later scholars extended this to include monotheistic religions as well (such as Zoroastrians). Contemporary scholars have upheld this ruling, but many view inter-faith marriages as unwise (as it leads to many problems such as determination of religion of children, etc), albeit legal.

A Muslim woman, on the other hand, is only allowed to marry a Muslim man, under the assumption that to marry a non-Muslim man would mean that the children would grow up as non-Muslims. Under Islamic law (shari'a), a marriage contract between a Muslim woman and a non-Muslim man is considered illegal and void, and hence legally an adulterous affair. The same is true for a marriage contract between a Muslim man and a women from a non-Monotheistic faith (such as Hinduism. This is debatable as Hindu beliefs are actually Monistic; however Buddhism is a non-theistic religion).

All forms of sexual contact outside of a marriage are considered sinful. In particular, adultery warrants severe punishment. Pre-marital sex is also considered a grave sin, but its punishment is less severe. All shari'a laws regulating sexual conduct apply to both men and women equally, apart from those concerning menstruation (see below). However, when Muhammad was describing some of the pleasures in Heaven, 72 virgins was mentioned. This leads to some confusion among Muslims.

Most forms of sexual contact within a marriage are allowed. Sex is considered a pleasurable and even spiritual activity, and a duty. At least one hadith explicitly states that for a married couple to have sex is a good deed rewarded by God. Another hadith suggests that a man should not leave the proverbial bed until the woman is satisfied; a reference many say points to orgasm.

Forbidden sexual contact includes genital contact with a woman while she is menstruating. In such case, other sexual contact (such as kissing) is explicitly allowed. Anal sex is explicitly forbidden by the hadith which states ^[16]: "Cursed is the one who approaches his wife in her rectum". The only other prohibition of sex within marriage is sex during menstruation. Other forms of sexual contact, such as oral sex, are not explicitly forbidden (though the consent of the partners is important), and hence widely held to be permissible.

Marriage to close relatives is not permitted, and therefore such relationship would be considered incestuous. However, cousins (whether paternal or maternal), are not defined to be "close relatives", and hence are allowed to marry, which is not taboo or uncommon in most Muslim countries. One of the more famous examples of this was Saddam Hussein who was married to his first cousin.

Milk kinship is considered equivalent to blood kinship, that is, if a mother or wet nurse breast feeds both babies, they are considered siblings, and the above rules apply.

Temporary marriage (Mut'a, marriage designated for a preset period of time) is not allowed by the majority Sunni school, but is allowed by Shia. Debate continues on its validity. Some Sunni individuals, specially in Saudi Arabia, participate in Muta Misyar which is has aspects of Temporary marriage such as no guarantee of inheritance to children conceived even during marriage. However, the time span is not fixed.

Polygyny is allowed in Islam (Up to 4 wives at the same time). Concubines, or slaves kept for the purpose of satisfying their masters sexual urges, have also commonly been a part of Muslim culture, famously associated as members of royal courts - "harems" - of Muslim rulers. Most Muslims, however, hold it in a negative perspective now as it does not guarantee rights of inheritance to the Concubines or slaves and is against basic ethics of Islam. However, women are strictly forbidden from practicing polyandry.

There are dissenting views on the topic of masturbation. While some scholars consider it unlawful and thus prohibited according to Islamic doctrine, others (such as those of the Hanbali doctrine) believe that those who masturbate out of fear of committing fornication or fear for their bodies have done nothing wrong and are not punished if (and only if) they are unable to marry. According to the Hadith however, men are encouraged to fast in order to avoid fornication and tempting oneself with sexual thoughts or conversations with opposite sex outside marriage is strongly discouraged.

Divorce is allowed in Islam; while in principle both genders have equal rights to initiate them, in practise men overwhelmingly have the upper hand. In most Muslim-majority nations, such biased attitudes usually allow husbands to secure property, child custody, and other rights away from their former wives after the dissolutions of their marriages. Indeed, in many areas, merely a verbal decree ("triple talaq") from a husband is sufficient in the eyes of their societies to sever his ties to one of his wives.

Homosexuality is forbidden in Islam; anal intercourse between a man and another man is explicitly punishable by death in accordance with the hadith: "Whomever you find doing the deed of the People of Lot, then kill both the doer and whomever he is doing it to." The four Caliphs upheld this ruling, as did all of the Prophet's companions. It is a capital crime in Iran, Saudi Arabia, The United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Sudan, and Mauritania.

[edit] Hinduism and sexuality

Unlike other religions, in Hinduism views of sexual morality differ widely depending on the region and sect. Hindu scriptures themselves are often vague about sexuality. There are temples depicting sexual activity openly (examples include temple complexes at Ajanta and Ellora) and sexual imagery is not sacrilege (for instance, the commonly-known metaphoric abstract phallic symbol of the Shiva lingam), but sexual self-restraint (as well as in other aspects of life) are considered essential to a Hindu's well being and dharmic/karmic duties.

Religiously speaking, Hindus begin life at the Brahmacharya or "student" stage, in which they are directed to celibately advance themselves educationally and spiritually to prepare themselves for a life of furthering their dharma (religious duties) and karma (right earthly actions); only once they reach the Grihastya or "householder" stage can they seek kama (physical pleasure) and artha (worldly achievement, material prosperity) through their vocations.

In general, however, Hindu society has been influenced by Islamic and colonial British viewpoints to reflect their quite conservative attitudes in matters pertaining to sex. Many contemporary Hindus (especially in large cities within India and/or second-generation immigrant communities in developed countries) have accepted Western notions like pre-marital sex, "love" marriages (compared to the more traditional arranged marriage), and homo-/bisexuality. Among more traditional elements of Hindu society, though, such concepts are still anathema.

Most culturally-sensitive Hindus adhere to sexual standards akin to Victorian morality, with both pre-marital and extra-marital sex perceived to be immoral and shameful. In the religion's teachings, the prohibition against sex outside of marriage is largely related to the prescribed life stages Hindus are bound to follow if they are to attain moksha (the same as the Buddhist concept of nirvana, or enlightenment of the soul).

As influenced by the British and Islam, Indian law (influencing the highest concentration of Hindus) considers all except heterosexual monogamy to be illegal. Additionally, while there are no restrictions on particular kinds of sexual activity, it is considered a highly private affair. Most Hindus are extremely averse to openly address anything related to sexuality, as such discussion or publicly romantic displays are viewed as distasteful.

The Kama Sutra (Aphorisms of Love) by Vatsayana, widely believed to be just a manual for sexual congress, offers an insight into sexual mores, ethics and societal rules that were prevalent at that time (ca. 5 CE). Shrungara Ras (Romance, one of the nine rasas or emotions). A drama in Sanskrit, Shakuntalam by Kalidasa, is cited as one of the best examples of Shrungara Ras, talks of the love story of Dushyanta and Shakuntala.

[edit] Buddhism and sexuality

Buddhist monks and nuns of most traditions are expected to refrain from all sexual activity (Japanese Buddhism being a notable exception), and the Buddha is said to have admonished his followers to avoid unchastity “as if it were a pit of burning cinders."^[17]

A core teaching of Buddha's foundational first sermon is that "one should not pursue sensual pleasure (kama-sukha), which is low, vulgar, coarse, ignoble and unbeneficial." (Samyutta Nikaya V:420, Sutta Pitaka). This is reinforced in many passages of the Sutta Pitaka, such as the Simile of the Quail (Sutta 66 of the Majjhima Nikaya) where Buddha teaches that sensual pleasures are "filthy, coarse, and ignoble" and "should not be pursued, developed, or cultivated; they should be feared." In the Simile of the Snake (Sutta 22 of the Majjhima Nikaya), Buddha strongly rebukes those who say that sexual practice is not an obstacle to Enlightenment: "Misguided man... I have stated [time and again] how sensual pleasures provide little gratification, much suffering, and much despair, and how great is the danger in them. But you, misguided man [have] injured yourself and stored up much demerit; for this will lead to your harm and suffering for a long time."

In addition, the second of the Four Noble Truths states that the ultimate cause of all suffering is attachment and desire (tanha), and the third states that the way to eliminate suffering is to eliminate attachment and desire. Sexual practices are characterised as both attachment (kama-upadana) and desire (kama-tanha). Sensual desire (kama-cchanda) is also the first of the Five Hindrances, which must be eradicated if one is to progress spiritually. Of the three kinds of cchanda, kama-cchanda is the one that is ethically immoral.^ref

Like other religions, Buddhism takes a strong ethical stand in human affairs and sexual behaviour in particular. The most common formulation of Buddhist ethics are the five precepts:

1. Refraining from harming living beings/practicing loving kindness
2. Refraining from taking the non-given/practicing generosity
3. Refraining from committing sexual misconduct/practicing contentment
4. Refraining from false speech/practicing truthful communication
5. Refraining from intoxicants/practicing mindfulness.

The precepts are voluntary. Buddhists are to analyse their actions and thoughts in terms of these precepts, rather than subscribe to a divinely derived list of commandments. The third precept, sexual misconduct, has been interpreted differently by different Buddhist traditions, but ultimately is up to the individual to determine.

This means that a householder may indulge in legitimate sex because in such activity there is no guilt and no sense of exploitation of the other party. Sex, according to Buddhism, should be neither unhealthily repressed nor morbidly exaggerated. It should always be under the control of the will, as it can be if it is regarded sanely and placed in its proper perspective.

[edit] Neopaganism and sexuality

Neo-Pagan religions tend to be positive about sexuality, and are almost unanimous in their acceptance of same-sex relationships as equal to heterosexual ones. Most Neo-Pagan religions have the theme of fertility (both physical and creative/spiritual) as central to their practices, and as such encourage a healthy sex life, which is seen as consensual sex between adults, regardless of gender or age. Specifically in the Wiccan tradition of modern Paganism, one of the widely accepted pieces of Craft liturgy, the Charge of the Goddess instructs that "...all acts of love and pleasure are [the Goddess'] rituals", giving validity to all forms of consensual sexual activity for Wiccan practitioners.

In the Gardnerian and Alexandrian forms of Wicca, "The Great Rite" is a way of expressing love through sexuality. The ritual is not an excuse to have sex with someone, nor is any sexual activity in a properly consecrated circle a Great Rite. ^[18] Any sexual acts dealing with Wicca, whether literal or symbolic, is encouraged to take place between two consenting adults, even more so with two involved lovers.

The Charge of the Goddess, says in the words of the Goddess, "all acts of love and pleasure are my rituals".^[19]

The Wiccan attitude about sexuality as wholly natural, and goes on from there to seek a fuller understanding of masculine-feminine polarity and of how to make constructive use of it — both psychologically and magically. Sexuality freed from the shackles of obligatory breeding is what makes us specifically human. ^[20]

Wicca, like other religious philosophies has a spectrum of adherents including those with conservative views to liberal views. However nothing in Wiccan philosophy prohibits sexual intercourse outside of marriage or relationships between members of the same sex. On the contrary, the Wiccan Rede "An it harm none, do as thou wilt" is interpreted by many to allow and endorse responsible sexual relationships of all varieties.

[edit] Spreading sexual morality to non-adherents

Many cultures attempt to codify their prescriptions concerning individual sexual behaviours. Such codifications are frequently enacted as laws, extending their application beyond the culture to other cultures under the purview of the laws, including dissenters.

Most of the Islamic world has strict rules enforced with sometimes violent punishments to enforce Islamic moral codes, including sexual morality on their citizens, and often attempt to impose it on non-Muslims living within their societies. The same was true of various European Christian regimes at some stages in history, and many contemporary Christians support restrictions on the private expression of sexuality, ranging from prohibitions of prostitution to restrictions on oral sex and sodomy. Haredi Jews in Israel use various verbal and print media (newspapers, books, radio shows, websites, etc.) to try to encourage other Jews to follow the Jewish laws of sexuality.

[edit] See also

• Antisexualism
• Child sexuality
• Christian views on contraception
• Incest
• List of topics in sexual ethics
• Nazar ill'al-murd
• Pederasty in ancient Greece
• Sex
• Sexual revolution
• Sexual abstinence
• Sexual ethics
• Sexual misconduct
• Sodomy law
• Unification Church views of sexuality
• Victimless crime

[edit] References

• James Boswell, Christianity, Social Tolerance and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century, University Of Chicago Press, 1st ed. 1980 ISBN 0-226-06710-6, paperback Nov. 2005 ISBN 0-226-06711-4
• Mathew Kuefler (editor), The Boswell Thesis : Essays on Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality, University Of Chicago Press, Nov. 2005 ISBN 0-226-45741-9
• Eckhart Tolle, The Power of Now: A Guide to Spiritual Enlightenment, New World Library, 1st ed. 1999, paperback 2004 ISBN 1-57731-480-8

[edit] Footnotes

Insight to the Scriptures, published by The Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, it-1 pp. 862-864 Fornication

[edit] Further reading

[edit] In Buddhism

• Bernard Faure, "The Red Thread: Buddhist Approaches to Sexuality.", ISBN-10: 0-6910-5998-5.
• Philip T. Sudo, "Zen Sex: The Way of Making Love." ISBN-10: 0-0607-5799-X.

[edit] In Judaism

• Shmuley Boteach, "Kosher Sex: A Recipe for Passion and Intimacy" ISBN-10: 0-3854-9466-1.
• Michael Gold, "Does God Belong in the Bedroom?", ISBN-10: 0-8276-0421-1.

[edit] Critical perspectives

• Demosthenes Savramis, "The satanizing of woman: Religion versus sexuality." ISBN-10: 0-3850-4485-2.

[edit] External links

• Sexuality, the Modern World, and the Catholic Church
• Ethnographical Paedophilia
• Religious Declaration on Sexuality Morality, Justice, and Healing "signed by over 850 religious leaders"; an alternative sexuality - friendly document
• Quakers Integrating Spirituality and Sexuality
• The Spiritual Significance of Sexuality
• Social Determinants of Attitudes Towards Women's Premarital Sexuality Among Female Turkish University Students
• Ecumenical Group "Homosexuals and Church"
• Liberated Christians - A Christian swinging advocacy group
• TheMarriageBed.com - Extensive materials on sexuality from Christian perspective
• Outnotes.com
• Kline, Marty. America's War on Sex American Sexuality Magazine. Accessed 3-26-07.