Pseudoarchaeology

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Pseudoarchaeology (also called fantastic archaeology) is pseudoscientific archaeology, i.e. the interpretation of material remains and sites (which are not necessarily genuine) using methodology that is not part of the established scientific method. Archaeological theories, sites, site excavations and publications which do not conform to standard accepted archaeological methedology generally fall under the category of pseudoarchaeology.

Pseudoarchaeology can be practised intentionally or unintentionally. Archaeological frauds and hoaxes are considered intentional pseudoarchaeology. Genuine archaeological finds may be unintentionally converted to pseudoarchaeology through unscientific interpretation.

Pseudoarchaelogy is frequently motivated by nationalism or a desire to prove a particular religious, historical, political or anthropological theory. In many cases, an a priori conclusion is established, and fieldwork is undertaken explicitly to corroborate the theory in detail.

Practitioners of pseudoarchaeology often rail against academic archaeologists and established scientific methods, claiming conventional science has overlooked critical evidence.

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[edit] Examples

Notable examples of nationalistic or chauvinistic pseudoarchaeology include Piltdown Man, forged possibly to ensure that the earliest hominid was English, supposed Viking artifacts (Kensington Runestone and Viking Altar Rock), and speculation on pre-Columbian contact between Egypt and the Maya. The latter philosophy is often linked with ancient astronaut theory and the antiquated theory of the Moundbuilders as examples of racist pseudoarchaeology. Examples of religiously-motivated pseudoarchaeology include repeated "discoveries" of Noah's Ark on Mount Ararat or neighboring mountain ranges, and use of questionable artifacts such as the Los Lunas Decalogue Stone as proof for the presence of a pre-Columbian Semitic culture in America. Pseudoarchaeology that is labelled as such due to unconventional or scientifically suspect methodology includes Thor Heyerdahl's Kon Tiki expedition, the published work of Barry Fell, and Dr. Virginia Steen-McIntyre's circular dating of Hueyatlaco spearheads ([1]). Other pseudoarchaeological topics include lost continents such as Atlantis or Lemuria, contested by mainstream archaeologists and historians as lacking critical physical evidence and general historical credibility.

There are a number of legitimate archaeological sites that have long been the focus of a disproportionate amount of unscientific speculation which is often described as pseudoarchaeology. Among these are Stonehenge, the Great Pyramid, the Sphinx, Etruscan inscriptions, pre-Columbian European relics in the Western Hemisphere, Easter Island, Teotihuacan, Palenque, Chichen Itza, the Nazca lines and the stone spheres of Costa Rica.

[edit] Relativist and post-modern responses

Researchers accused of pseudoarchaeology often respond to such allegations research by noting that many scientific truths are frequently ridiculed when they are first proposed.

Archaeologists schooled in Marxism and Critical Theory argue that scientific thought can support contemporary ideology by taking advantage of scientists' status as 'experts'. Incorporation of postmodernism into archaeological theory has led some archaeologists (e.g. Bettina Arnold, Bruce Trigger) to explore the role of archaeology in state formation and to reexamine archaeologists' status as neutral investigators of the past. The growth of Cultural Resources Management, wherein archaeology is used to guide political decisions, does little to refute these ideas.

Most archaeologists attempt to distinguish their research from pseudoarchaeology by pointing to differences in research methodology, including recursive methods, falsifiable theories, peer review, and a generally systematic approach to collecting data. Few see themselves as unwitting cogs in a wider conspiracy, and many strive to make their work relevant to contemporary society.

[edit] History

Though the archaeological report given by the fifth-century Socrates of Constantinople in his Ecclesiastical History, of St Helena's discovery of the True Cross may make her the patron saint of pseudoarchaeology to skeptics, it is clear that the manipulation of archaeological sites and "finds" to assist propaganda and pseudohistory is not a phenomenon simply of modern historicist culture. In the mid-2nd century, those exposed by Lucian's sarcastic essay Alexander the false prophet prepared an archaeological "find" in Chalcedon to prepare a public for the supposed oracle they planned to establish at Abonoteichus in Paphlygonia:

"in the temple of Apollo, which is the most ancient in Chalcedon, they buried bronze tablets which said that very soon Asclepius, with his father Apollo, would move to Pontus and take up his residence at Abonoteichus. The opportune discovery of these tablets caused this story to spread quickly to all Bithynia and Pontus, and to Abonoteichus sooner than anywhere else."

At Glastonbury Abbey in 1291, at a time when King Edward I desired to emphasize his "Englishness" a fortunate discovery was made: the coffin of King Arthur, unmistakably identified with an inscribed plaque. Arthur was reinterred at Glastonbury in a magnificent ceremonial attended by the king and queen.

British archeologists for some time argued that the use of masonry in and around Great Zimbabwe could not have been accomplished by native Africans, and was therefore attributed to Arabs or Jews. A similar racial motive has been argued against claims that megalithic sites in the new world were created by White Europeans.

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

Alleged Pseudoarchaeological sites

"Graham Hancock" : Preeminent pseudoarchaeologist Graham Hancock.
"Erich von Däniken" : Another preeminent pseudoarchaeologist Erich von Däniken.
"Answers in Genesis" : A pro-creationist website that seeks to prove, among other things, the limitations of carbon-14 dating.
"Alan Alford" : "Independent researcher" pushes the idea that ancient Egyptian, Greek, and Mesopotamian religions were "exploded planet cults" and have something to teach us regarding "eternal life in the other world."
"Rose Flem-Ath" : Official website for Canadian couple Rand and Rose Flem-Ath, authors of When the Sky Fell: In Search of Atlantis and The Atlantis Blueprint.
"Zecharia Sitchin" : Analyzes the tale of Sodom and Gomorrah as a nuclear weapon attack in 2024 B.C. that wiped out "a spaceport in the Sinai Peninsula."
"Bosnian Pyramid" : Official project website and online store.

[edit] Skeptics

"Archaeological/Skeptical Resources, Critiques of cult archaeology, Roman Britain links" : Doug's Skeptical Archaeology site with articles and links to sites that refute some popular pseudoarchaeology.
"The Wild Side of Geoarchaeology Page" : Paul Heinrich's case against "alternative geology," including the impossibility of pole shifts and the artifact "from an advanced ancient race" that happens to be a spark plug.
"The Antiquity of Man" : Some of the latest research in authentic paleoanthropology and hominid evolution.
"Translated-Correctly": Compares two alternative translations of Egyptian Hieroglyphs.

[edit] References and resources

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