Politics of creationism
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Politics of creationism |
The politics of creationism concerns efforts to change public policy in favor of creationism, currently primarily focusing on what should be taught as science in schools. [1] [2] [3] [4] In the United States, the teaching of biological evolution in the public schools is one significant area of contention, while the teaching of alternatives such as creation science and intelligent design are other aspects of the dispute. In addition, creationists have made inroads in the political realm in the US and other countries.[5][6][7][8][9][10]
Creationists argue that evolution should not be taught because it is bad science or because it is an anti-theist ideology dressed up as science.[11] Pressure on local school boards and individual teachers has led to de-emphasizing evolution in some public schools, but the teaching of evolution continues to be predominant.[12] Concerned parents, educators, scientists, and other interested parties argue that creation science and intelligent design are pseudosciences as well as thinly disguised schemes to introduce religion to the classroom. In the United States, recent court decisions have affirmed this position, consistently barring the introduction of creation science and intelligent design into public science curricula.
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[edit] Public education in the United States
Evolution and creationism in public education in the United States have been the subjects of often acrimonious contention since the Scopes trial. Locally controlled school boards in regions of the country dominated by creationists have made numerous and varied attempts over the years to undermine evolution and/or promote creationism in public school science classrooms.
Those who do not consider creationism to be legitimate science oppose having children taught these beliefs as science, though most do not object to objective discussions about these beliefs in humanities classes, e.g., in a comparative religions course. On the other hand, religious fundamentalists often consider the teaching of evolution as a threat to their beliefs and prerogatives as parents and clergy.
Scientists opposed to the teaching of faith-based origins argue that science and religion are wholly separate realms, and that teaching creationism as science confuses students about the proper nature of science.
Controversy also surfaces frequently in school textbook/curriculum reviews.[13] Creationists lobby for equal time, Teach the Controversy, or replacement of science curriculum with creation "science" or intelligent design. They allege science textbooks are biased, out of date and contain factual errors. A perennial hot-spot is Kansas, where the school board favors creationism whenever its proponents command a majority.
Some creationists seek to redefine Constitutional limitations on religious advocacy in public school by lending their support to school voucher programs. They endorse those voucher programs that allow parents to send their children to private religiously-affiliated schools that teach creationism or intelligent design in science classes. Opponents say this violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment, but the Supreme Court had not yet ruled decisively on the matter as of 2006.
[edit] Education world-wide
Education in the United Kingdom comes under different systems in its four countries, all of which provide schools with a particular religious ethos as part of the state system alongside essentially secular schools. Both types of schools teach evolution by natural selection in their biology curricula, not creationism. An exception has arisen with the introduction in England of private sponsorship of state schools, known as city academies, which were introduced by Tony Blair’s government in 2000. This has allowed, for example, millionaire car dealer Peter Vardy to introduce the teaching of creationism alongside evolution in city academies accepting sponsorship from his fund, which is called the Emmanuel Schools Foundation.[14]
This resulted in public controversy which drew attention to one private Seventh-day Adventist school and a few private Muslim schools teaching creationism.[15] Despite protests by scientists, bishops and politicians, the government has so far not prohibited the teaching of creationism or intelligent design as long as National Curriculum guidelines on teaching evolution are met. Independent schools, which teach around 10 per cent of the population, are free to choose what they teach. Further clarification was given after it was found that a group called Truth in Science had distributed DVDs produced in America featuring figures linked to the Discovery Institute to promote Intelligent Design, and claimed that they were being used by 59 schools.[16] The Department for Education and Skills (DfES) stated that "Neither creationism nor intelligent design are taught as a subject in schools, and are not specified in the science curriculum. The national curriculum for science clearly sets down that pupils should be taught that the fossil record is evidence for evolution, and how variation and selection may lead to evolution or extinction."[17] Teaching about Intelligent Design Creationism can be included in Religious Education as part of developing an understanding of different beliefs,[18] including secular humanism.[19]
In September 2004, the teaching of evolution in primary schools was briefly banned in Serbia, but the ban was lifted days later after an outcry from scientists and even Serbian Orthodox bishops. The incident led to the resignation of education minister Ljiljana Čolić.[6]
In May 2005, the Netherlands education minister Maria van der Hoeven suggested that discussion of Intelligent design in schools might promote dialogue between religious groups. Widespread opposition from scientists led to proposals for a conference on the plan being dropped.[7]
In Australia, objective study of religions occurs in both private and public schools. In 2005, when the Federal Education Minister, Brendan Nelson, raised the notion of Intelligent Design being taught in science classes, the public outcry caused the minister to quickly concede that the correct forum for Intelligent Design, if it were to be taught, is in religious or philosophy classes. "Intelligent design not science: experts"
Turkey, a secular state, has a small creationist movement, initiated after contact with creationists from the USA. However, members of the Turkish scientific community strongly oppose creationism, and only evolution is taught in universities. There is an ongoing debate on including intelligent design in high school text books.[8]
In Pakistan, evolution is no longer taught in universities[citation needed]. However, Pakistan Academy of Sciences is a signatory of IAP Statement on the teaching of evolution dated 21 June 2006, and Urdu translations of various titles on evolutionary theory are widely available[9] for general reading.
Brazilian scientists protested in 2004 when the education department of Rio de Janeiro started teaching creationism in religious education classes. Since then, most Christian colleges have taught evolution as science, while teaching creationism as religion only in special, non-curricular classes. Public schools teach only evolution.[10][11]
In Japan, evolution is taught at all senior high schools (15-18 years of age). The regulation ("Gakushuu shidou youryou") states: "Explain (to the pupils) that the various forms of life on the earth have come to their present forms through evolution. Mention too the examples of evolution and explain the debates and processes that led to the theory of evolution." This means that no educational institutions can be officially run as senior high schools without teaching evolution. However, private schools are free to teach alternative views along with evolution. Creationism can be used as a supporting material in the non-science modules, such as National Language ("Kokugo").
In December 2006, a schoolgirl in St. Petersburg, Russia and her father decided to take the teaching of Darwinism in Russian schools to court. The position of the Russian Ministry of Education supports the theory of evolution. The suit has been backed by representatives of Russian Orthodox Church.[12][13]
In early 2007, it was reported that the National Museums of Kenya is the target of an anti-evolution campaign mounted by Bishop Boniface Adoyo of Nairobi Pentecostal Church (NPC), Christ is the Answer Ministries, representing 35 churches with a total of 6 million members. Adoyo is advocating removal of all hominoid fossils from the museum because he believes "When museums claim that man evolved from apes, they are actually hurting many Christians who believe that God created us". He is also advocating a boycott of museums that display material about man's origin.[20]
[edit] Religious politics
Almost all churches teach that God created the cosmos. Most contemporary Christian leaders and scholars from many mainstream churches, such as Roman Catholic, Anglican and some Lutheran denominations, reject reading the Bible as though it could shed light on the physics of creation instead of the spiritual meaning of creation. According to the Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, "[for] most of the history of Christianity there's been an awareness that a belief that everything depends on the creative act of God, is quite compatible with a degree of uncertainty or latitude about how precisely that unfolds in creative time. "[21]
The Roman Catholic Church now explicitly accepts the theory of Evolution [22], (albeit with most conservatives and traditionalists within the Church in dissent) , as do Anglican scholars of which Rev Dr John Polkinghorne FRS is a prime example, arguing that evolution is one of the principles through which God created living beings. Earlier examples of this attitude include Frederick Temple, Asa Gray and Charles Kingsley who were enthusiastic supporters of Darwin's theories on publication[23], and the French Jesuit priest and geologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, saw evolution as confirmation of his Christian beliefs, despite condemnation from Church authorities for his more speculative theories. Another example is that of Liberal theology, which assumes that Genesis is a poetic work, and that just as human understanding of God increases gradually over time, so does the understanding of His creation. In fact, both Jews and Christians have been considering the idea of the creation history as an allegory (instead of an historical description) long before the development of Darwin's theory of evolution. Two notable examples are Saint Augustine (4th century) that, on theological grounds, argued that everything in the universe was created by God in the same instant, (and not in seven days as a plain account of Genesis would require) [24]; and the 1st century Jewish scholar Philo of Alexandria, who wrote that it would be a mistake to think that creation happened in six days, or in any set amount of time. [25]
According to Time Magazine, polls indicate that about 45% of Americans believe that "God created the world along with all creatures big and small in just six days."[26] This substantial belief in one or another form of creationism does not translate into Americans believing that evolution should not be taught in the public schools, however. For example, Molleen Matsumura of the National Center for Science Education calculates that "[O]f Americans in the twelve largest Christian denominations, [between 77% and] 89.6% belong to churches that support evolution education."[27]
In the U.S. many Protestant denominations promote creationism, preach against evolution from the pulpits, and sponsor lectures and debates on the subject. A list of denominations that officially advocate creation include:
- Assemblies of God[28]
- Free Methodist Church
- Jehovah's Witnesses
- Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod[29]
- Pentecostal Churches
- Seventh-day Adventist Churches[30]
- Southern Baptist Convention Churches[31]
- Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod[32]
- Christian Reformed Church
- Pentecostal Oneness churches.[33]
[edit] References
- ^ [1]
- ^ [2]
- ^ [3]
- ^ [4]
- ^ For example, in the US Presidential Race in 2000, both George W. Bush and Al Gore's initial political platforms included advocating the teaching of both evolution and creationism in science classes (George W. Bush, The Last Relativist, Timothy Noah, Chatterbox: Gossip, speculation, and scuttlebutt about politics, Slate, Oct. 31, 2000).
- ^ UK Prime Minister Tony Blair appears to have been supporting efforts to establish schools teaching creationism in the UK (Revealed: Tony Blair's Link to Schools that Take the Creation Literally, Nicholas Pyke, The Independent, 2004-06-13)
- ^ In Italy, former prime minister Silvio Berlusconi wanted to retire evolution from schools in the middle level; after one week of massive protests, he reversed his opinion.(We put the clock back a 1000 years, Peer Meinert, dpa -German language).
- ^ Serbia reverses Darwin suspension
- ^ Poland saw a major controversy over creationism in 2006 when the deputy education minister, Mirosław Orzechowski, denounced evolution as "one of many lies" taught in Polish schools (And finally..., Warsaw Business Journal, 18 December 2006).
- ^ Creation commotion in Dutch Parliament, Frans Gunnink, and Philip Bell, Answers in Genesis article, 7 June 2005; EVOLUTION POLITICS: Is Holland Becoming the Kansas of Europe?, Martin Enserink, Science 3 June 2005: Vol. 308. no. 5727, p. 1394 DOI: 10.1126/science.308.5727.1394b
- ^ Hayward 1998, p. 2
- ^ Peters & Hewlett 2005, p. 5, Reed 2006 quoting March 2005 national survey by the NCSE, on pressure tactics. Article also describes the marginal success of these pressure tactics.
- ^ Larson 2004, p. 252, which talks about the introduction of BSCS textbooks in 1963, and subsequent creationists efforts in the 1960s.
- ^ Taylor 2006
- ^ Toynbee 2006
- ^ Revealed: rise of creationism in UK schools – "PR packs spread controversial theory", James Randerson, The Guardian science correspondent, November 27, 2006, retrieved 2007-06-01
- ^ BBC News-Education-'Design' attack on school science
- ^ Lords Hansard text for 18 Dec 2006 retrieved 2007-06-01
- ^ British Humanist Association
- ^ Kenya: Evangelicals Wage Anti-Evolution War, Eric Wamanji, The East African Standard (Nairobi), January 12, 2007.
- ^ Williams 2006
- ^ see eg John Paul II address here [5]
- ^ see eg John Polkinghorne's Science and Theology pp6-7
- ^ Davis A. Young, "THE CONTEMPORARY RELEVANCE OF AUGUSTINE'S VIEW OF CREATION" (From: Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 40.1:42-45 (3/1988)), The American Scientific Affiliation
- ^ The Works of Philo Judaeus, Chapter 2, translated by Charles Duke Yonge
- ^ Wallis 2005, p. 6
- ^ Matsumura 1998, p. 9 adapting membership tables from a June, 1998 article titled Believers: Dynamic Dozen put out by Religion News Services which in turn cites the 1998 Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches. Matsurmura's determination on which churches support evolution education include the SBC based on a brief they filed in McLean v. Arkansas, where the SBC took a position Matsurmura states the SBC has since changed.
- ^ GCAG 1977, General Council of the Assemblies of Godofficial assertion of creationism
- ^ Barry 2001, p. 60-61
- ^ Official Seventh-day Adventist belief statement advocating creationism
- ^ SBC 1982
- ^ WELS 1999, p. 7-8
- ^ Ghedotti 2006
