Pali Canon

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Standard edition of the Thai Pali Canon
Standard edition of the Thai Pali Canon

The Pali Canon is the standard scripture collection of the Theravada Buddhist tradition.[1] It was not printed until the nineteenth century, but is now available in electronic form. However, the English translation, by the Pali Text Society, is not yet complete. The Canon was written down from oral tradition in the last century B.C.E.[2] Most scholars give it some sort of pre-eminence among sources for early Buddhism.[3] It is composed in the Pali language, and falls into three general categories, called pitaka (piṭaka, basket) in Pali. Because of this, the canon is traditionally known as the tipitaka (tipiṭaka; three baskets).[4] The three pitakas are as follows.

  1. Vinaya Pitaka, dealing with rules for monks and nuns
  2. Sutta Pitaka, discourses, most ascribed to the Buddha, but some to disciples
  3. Abhidhamma Pitaka, variously described as philosophy, psychology, metaphysics etc.

Contents

[edit] The Canon in the tradition

The Canon is traditionally described by the Theravada as the Word of the Buddha (Buddhavacana), though this is obviously not intended in a literal sense, since it includes teachings by disciples.[5]

An official view is given by a spokesman for the Buddha Sasana Council of Burma:[6] the Canon contains everything needed to show the path to nirvana; the commentaries and subcommentaries sometimes include much speculative matter, but are faithful to its teachings and often give very illuminating illustrations. In Sri Lanka and Thailand, "official" Buddhism has in large part adopted the interpretations of Western scholars.[7]

Although the Canon has existed in written form for two millennia, its oral nature has not been forgotten in actual Buddhist practice within the tradition: memorization and recitation remain common. Even lay people usually know at least a few short texts by heart and recite them regularly; this is considered a form of meditation, at least if one understands the meaning. Monks are of course expected to know quite a bit more (see Dhammapada below for an example). A Burmese monk named Vicittasara even learnt the entire Canon by heart for the Sixth Council.[8] Recitation is in Pali as the ritual language.[9]

[edit] Origins

According to the scriptures a council was held shortly after the Buddha's death to collect and preserve his teachings. It is traditionally believed by Theravadins that most of the Pali Canon was recited orally from this time, with only a few later additions. There are wide differences of opinion among scholars as to to what extent the teachings may be traced to the historical Buddha himself.[10]

Dr Richard Gombrich, Academic Director of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, former Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Oxford and former President of the Pali Text Society, thinks[11] that the content, as opposed to the form, of large parts of the Canon goes back to the Buddha himself. At the other extreme, Dr Gregory Schopen, Professor of Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Buddhist Studies at the University of Texas at Austin, argues[12] that it is not until the fifth to sixth centuries C.E. that we can know anything definite about the contents of the Canon. Other scholars hold various positions in this range.

Likewise, various positions have been taken on what are the earliest books of the Canon. One school of thought gives this position to prose works: the Vinaya and the first four nikayas of the Sutta. Included in this school are the following: Gombrich;[13] A. K. Warder, Professor Emeritus of Sanskrit in the University of Toronto;[14] Dr Rupert Gethin, Lecturer in Indian Religions in the Department of Theology and Religious Studies, and co-director of the Centre for Buddhist Studies, at the University of Bristol, and current (2006) President of the Pali Text Society.[15] On the other side, some scholars consider some of the poetic books the earliest: the Suttanipata, followed by the Itivuttaka and the Udana. These include the following: the late Professor Nakamura Hajime (surname first in accordance with Japanese practice);[16] and Ui Hakuju.[17] L. S. Cousins, former lecturer in the Department of Comparative Religion at Manchester University and former President of the Pali Text Society, holds a compromise position, adding the Suttanipata to the prose list.[18]

Most of the above scholars would probably agree that their early books include some later additions.[19] Contrariwise, some scholars have claimed[20] that central aspects of late works are or may be much earlier.

According to the Sinhalese chronicles, the Pali Canon was written down in the reign of King Vattagamini (Vaṭṭagamiṇi) (last century B.C.E.) in Sri Lanka, at the fourth Buddhist council. Most scholars hold that little if anything was added to the Canon after this,[21] though Schopen questions this.[22]

[edit] Texts and translations

The climate of Theravada countries is not conducive to the survival of manuscripts. Apart from brief quotations in inscriptions and a two-page fragment from the eighth or ninth century found in Nepal, the oldest manusripts known are from late in the fifteenth century,[23] and there is not very much from before the eighteenth.[24]

The first complete printed edition of the Canon was published in Burma in 1900, in 38 volumes.[25] The following editions of the Pali text of the Canon are readily available in the West.

  • Pali Text Society edition, 1877–1927 (a few volumes subsequently replaced by new editions), 57 volumes including indexes, individual volumes also available separately (website)
  • Thai edition, 1925–8, 45 volumes, electronic transcript by budsir: Buddhist scriptures information retrieval, CD-ROM and online, both requiring payment; more accurate than the PTS edition, but with fewer variant readings[26]
  • Sixth Council edition, Rangoon, 1954–6, 40 volumes, electronic transcript by Vipassana Research Institute available online in searchable database free of charge, or on CD-ROM (p&p only) from the Institute; a rival transcript, produced by the Dhamma Society Fund under the patronage of the Supreme Patriarch of Thailand, is expected online soon; more accurate than the Thai edition, but with fewer variant readings[27]
  • Sinhalese (Buddha Jayanti) edition, 1957–?1993, 58 volumes including parallel Sinhalese translations, transcript in Pali Canon Online Database, searchable, free of charge (not yet fully proofread)

No one edition has all the best readings, and scholars must compare different editions.[28]

English translations of most of the Canon are available from the Pali Text Society, founded by British civil servant T.W. Rhys Davids. Translations of some books are also available from other publishers. See below for details.

[edit] Contents of the Canon

As noted above, the Canon consists of three pitakas.

Details are given below. For fuller information, see standard references on Pali literature.[29]

[edit] Vinaya Pitaka

Translation: The Book of the Discipline, tr I. B. Horner, 1938-66, 6 volumes, PTS

The first category, the Vinaya Pitaka, is mostly concerned with the rules of the sangha, both monks and nuns. The rules are preceded by stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. This pitaka can be divided into three parts.

  • Suttavibhanga (-vibhaṅga)
  • Khandhaka
  • Parivara (parivāra)

[edit] Suttavibhanga

Commentary on the Patimokkha, a basic code of rules for monks and nuns that is not as such included in the Canon. The monks' rules are dealt with first, followed by those of the nuns' rules not already covered.

[edit] Khandhaka

Additional translation: Vinaya Texts, tr T. W. Rhys Davids and Hermann Oldenberg, in Sacred Books of the East, volumes XXXV and XXXVI, 1890-94, Clarendon/Oxford, reissued by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi (? and by Dover, New York)

Other rules grouped by topic in 22 chapters.

[edit] Parivara

Analysis of the rules from various points of view.

[edit] Sutta Pitaka

The second category is the Sutta Pitaka (literally "basket of threads", or of "the well spoken"; Sanskrit: Sutra Pitaka, following the former meaning) which consists primarily of accounts of the Buddha's teachings. The Sutta Pitaka has five subdivisions or nikayas.

[edit] Digha Nikaya

Translations:

  • Dialogues of the Buddha, tr T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids, 1899-1921, 3 volumes, PTS
  • Thus Have I Heard: the Long Discourses of the Buddha, tr Maurice Walshe, 1987, Wisdom Pubns; later reissued under the original subtitle; "a 'substantive' translation ... Nothing has been omitted except ... repetitions"

34 long discourses. Joy Manné argues[30] that this book was particularly intended to make converts, with its high proportion of debates and devotional material.

[edit] Majjhima Nikaya

Translations:

  • Further Dialogues of the Buddha, tr Lord Chalmers, 1926-7, 2 volumes, currently available from Books on Demand, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
  • The Book of the Middle Length Sayings, tr I. B. Horner, 3 volumes, 1954-9, PTS
  • Discourses of Gotama Buddha: Middle Collection, tr David Evans, Janus Pub, 1991; "Translation in an abridged form ... just about one third the size of Horner's translation, but with well over 90% of the significant content"
  • The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha (review), tr Nanamoli, revised Bodhi, Wisdom Pubns, 1995; the PTS also issues a private edition of this for members only, which is its preferred translation

152 medium discourses. Manné argues[31] that this book was particularly intended to give a solid grounding in the teaching to converts, with a high proportion of sermons and consultations.

[edit] Samyutta Nikaya

Translations:

  • The Book of the Kindred Sayings, tr C. A. F. Rhys Davids and F. L. Woodward, 1917-30, 5 volumes, PTS
  • The Connected Discourses of the Buddha tr Bodhi, Wisdom Pubns, 2 volumes, 2000; later reissued in 1 volume; the PTS also issues a private edition (2 volumes) of this for members only, which is its preferred translation

Thousands of short discourses in fifty-odd groups by subject, person etc. Bodhi says this nikaya has the most detailed explanations of doctrine.

[edit] Anguttara Nikaya

Translation: The Book of the Gradual Sayings, tr F. L. Woodward and E. M. Hare, 1932-6, 5 volumes, PTS

Thousands of short discourses arranged numerically from ones to elevens. It contains more elementary teaching for ordinary people than the preceding three.

[edit] Khuddaka Nikaya

A miscellaneous collection of works in prose or verse. The contents of this nikaya vary somewhat between different editions of the Canon. The "standard" list, given in most western sources,[32] contains the following.

However, some editions contain in addition some works that have been described by western scholars as paracanonical or semicanonical; see below.

[edit] Khuddakapatha

Translations:

  • Tr Childers, in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1869
  • In Some Sayings of the Buddha, ed & tr F. L. Woodward, London, 1925
  • "The text of the minor sayings", in Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, volume I, tr C. A. F. Rhys Davids, 1931, PTS
  • "The minor readings", in 1 volume with its commentary, "The illustrator of ultimate meaning", tr Nanamoli, 1960, PTS; this is the PTS's preferred translation, though the older one is still available

Nine short texts in prose or verse. This seems to have been intended as an introductory handbook for novices.[33] Most of its contents are found elsewhere in the Canon.

[edit] Dhammapada

Selected translations (out of dozens):

  • Tr F. Max Müller, in: Burlingame, Buddhist Parables, 1869; Sacred Books of the East, volume X, 1881; Clarence Hamilton, Buddhism; published separately, Watkins Pubg, 2006; this is the first English translation (a Latin translation had appeared in 1855)
  • Tr Narada, 1954
  • Tr Juan Mascaró, Penguin Classics, 1973
  • Tr Buddharakkhita, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1985; includes Pali text
  • The Word of the Doctrine, tr K. R. Norman, 1997, PTS

423 verses in 26 chapters by topic. About half the Pali verses are found elsewhere in the canon. In the Sinhalese tradition, monks have been required to know this book by heart before they can be ordained.[34] In the Burmese examination system, this is the first text to be studied in the sutta section of the syllabus (alongside the Patimokkha and Abhidhammatthasangaha).[35]

[edit] Udana

Translations:

  • Tr Major-General D. M. Strong, 1902
  • "Verses of uplift", in Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, volume II, tr F. L. Woodward, 1935, PTS
  • Tr John D. Ireland, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1990; later reissued in 1 volume with his translation of the Itivuttaka
  • Tr Peter Masefield, 1994, PTS; this is the PTS's preferred translation, though the older one is still available; its stated object is to translate the text as understood by the commentary

80 short passages, mostly verse, ascribed to the Buddha, with introductory stories.

[edit] Itivuttaka

Translations:

  • Sayings of Buddha, tr J. H. Moore, Columbia University Press, 1908
  • "As it was said", in Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, volume II, tr F. L. Woodward, 1935, PTS
  • Tr John D. Ireland, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1991; later reissued in 1 volume with his translation of the Udana
  • Tr Peter Masefield, PTS, 2000; this is the PTS's preferred translation, though the older one is still available; its stated object is to translate the text as understood by the commentary

112 prose teachings of the Buddha followed by verse paraphrases or complements. These are arranged numerically, from ones to fours.

[edit] Suttanipata

Translations:

  • Tr V. Fausbøll, in Sacred Books of the East, volume X, Clarendon/Oxford, 1881; reissued by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi (?and by Dover, New York)
  • Buddha's Teachings, tr Lord Chalmers, Harvard Oriental Series, 1932; verse translation, with parallel Pali text
  • Woven Cadences, tr E. M. Hare, 1945, out of print; verse translation
  • The Group of Discourses, tr K. R. Norman, 1984; this originally appeared "with alternative translations by I. B. Horner and Walpola Rahula"; that is, Miss Horner and Ven. Dr Rahula went through Mr Norman's translation and added notes of when they (jointly) disagreed with it (about a quarter of the text, according to the editor); this edition was subsequently reissued in paperback under the title The Rhinoceros Horn and Other Early Buddhist Poems, which is still available; the current hardback edition under the original title is Mr Norman's translation without these alternatives, with some revisions, and with detailed textual notes by the translator
  • Tr Saddhatissa, Curzon Press, London, 1985
  • Tr N. A. Jayawickrama, University of Kelaniya, 2001

Poems, some in prose frameworks. In five parts, of which the first four contain 54 poems. The fifth part is a single poem in 16 sections, plus an introduction and a conclusion, which last includes a little prose.

[edit] Vimanavatthu

Translations:

  • "Stories of the mansions", tr Jean Kennedy, in Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, volume IV, 1st edition, 1942; replaced by the following in the 2nd edition
  • "Stories of the mansions", tr I. B. Horner, in Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, 2nd edition, 1974, PTS
  • In Vimana Stories, tr Masefield, 1989, PTS; this is a translation of the commentary, with an embedded translation of the verses; it is the PTS's preferred translation, though Miss Horner's version is still available

85 poems telling of celestial mansions resulting from good karma.

[edit] Petavatthu

Translations:

  • "Stories of the departed", tr Henry Gehman, in Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, volume IV, 1942, PTS
  • In Peta-Stories, tr U Ba Kyaw and Peter Masefield, 1980, PTS; this is a translation of the commentary, with an embedded translation of the verses; it is the PTS's preferred translation, though the old version is still available

51 poems telling of the suffering of ghosts resulting from bad karma. It gives prominence to the idea that gifts to monks can benefit one's deceased relatives' ghosts.

[edit] Theragatha

Translations:

  • Psalms of the Brethren, tr C. A. F. Rhys Davids, 1913, reissued in Psalms of the Early Buddhists, PTS
  • Elders' Verses, tr K. R. Norman, volume I, 1969, PTS; this is the PTS's preferred translation, though the older one is still available; reissued in paperback as Poems of Early Budhist Monks, with some corrections, and with the translator's textual notes omitted

264 poems ascribed to monks, arranged roughly by increasing number of verses.

[edit] Therigatha
  • Psalms of the Sisters, tr C. A. F. Rhys Davids, 1909, reissued in Psalms of the Early Buddhists, PTS
  • Elders' Verses, tr K. R. Norman, volume II, 1971, PTS; this is the PTS's preferred translation, though the older one is still available

The two translations have been reissued in 1 volume under the title Poems of Early Buddhist Nuns

73 poems ascribed to nuns, arranged by increasing number of verses.

[edit] Jataka

Translation: The Jataka, or Stories of the Buddha's Former Births, tr E. B. Cowell et al., Cambridge University Press, 1895-1907, 6 volumes; reissued in 3 volumes, PTS; this translation embeds the canonical verses in the stories given by the commentary

547 poems said to relate to the Buddha's previous lives, arranged roughly by increasing number of verses. Professor Oskar von Hinüber[36] says only the last 50 were intended to be intelligible on their own. As a result of the arrangement, these make up the greater part of the book.[37]

[edit] Niddesa

Commentary on parts of Suttanipata: the last two parts and one other sutta. Traditionally ascribed to the Buddha's disciple Sariputta.

[edit] Patisambhidamagga

Translation: The Path of Discrimination, tr Nanamoli, 1982, PTS

30 treatises on various topics. Traditionally ascribed to Sariputta. Gethin[38] says this book presents the awakening experience as having many different dimensions and aspects, related to the whole of the teaching, and yet as a simple, coherent whole.

[edit] Apadana

About 600 poems, most telling how their authors performed a meritorious act in a distant past life, resulting in favourable rebirths and eventual nirvana. There are 589 in the Pali Text Society's edition, 603 in the Sixth Council edition and 592 in a number of others.[39] The following have been translated into English.

  • Buddhapadana (the 1st) by Dwijendralal Barua in B. C. Law Volume, Part II, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1946, pages 186-9
  • Paccekabuddhapadana (the 2nd) in The Paccekabuddha, by Ria Kloppenborg, E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1974
  • Ratthapalapadana, in Mélanges d'Indianisme offerts par ses élèves à S. Lévi, Paris, 1911
  • Pubbakammapilotikabuddhapadana, quoted in Udana Commentary, tr Peter Masefield, volume II, PTS
  • 25 of the last 40, quoted in Commentary on Verses of Theris, tr William Pruitt, 1998, PTS

[edit] Buddhavamsa

Translations:

  • "The lineage of the Buddhas", in Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, volume III, 1st edition, tr B. C. Law, 1938, out of print
  • The Genealogy of the Buddhas, tr M. V. Takin, Bombay University Pubns, 1969
  • "Chronicle of Buddhas", in Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, volume III, 2nd edition, tr I. B. Horner, 1975, PTS

Short verse book, mainly telling of the previous 24 Buddhas and the current Buddha's meritorious acts towards them in his previous lives.

[edit] Cariyapitaka

Translations:

  • "The collection of the ways of conduct", in Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, volume III, 1st edition, tr B. C. Law, 1938, out of print
  • "Basket of conduct", in Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, volume III, 2nd edition, tr I. B. Horner, 1975, PTS

35 poems telling of the Buddha's practice of 7 of the perfections in his previous lives.

[edit] Paracanonical or semicanonical works

Some or all of the following works are included in some editions of the Canon published in Burma,[40] Ceylon[41] and Thailand[42]

  • Nettipakarana(nettipakaraṇa, nettippakaraṇa or just netti)
  • Petakopadesa (peṭakopadesa)
  • Milindapanha (-pañha or -pañhā)

Professor George Bond of Northwestern University says of the first of these books that some Theravadins regard it as quasi-canonical, others as canonical, especially in Burma.[43] About 1800, the head of the Burmese sangha regarded at least the first two of these books as canonical.[44] On the other hand, at least one recent Burmese teacher has not.[45]

[edit] Nettipakarana

Translation: The Guide, tr Nanamoli, 1962, PTS

This book presents methods of interpretation. The colophon ascribes it to the Buddha's disciple Kaccana.

[edit] Petakopadesa

Translation: Pitaka-disclosure, tr Nanamoli, 1964, PTS

Presents the same methods as the preceding book. They have a large amount of overlap. The text of this book is very corrupt. The colophon ascribes it to the Buddha's disciple Kaccana.

[edit] Milindapanha

Translations:

  • The Questions of King Milinda, tr T. W. Rhys Davids, Sacred Books of the East, volumes XIII, XVII and XX, Clarendon/Oxford, 1881-5; reissued by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi (?and Dover, New York)
  • Milinda's Questions, tr I. B. Horner, 1963-4, 2 volumes, PTS

A dialogue between King Menander of Bactria (second century B.C.E.) and the monk Nagasena. Rhys Davids describes this as the greatest work of classical Indian prose literature.

Ancient style of scripture used for the Pali Canon
Ancient style of scripture used for the Pali Canon

[edit] Abhidhamma Pitaka

The third category, the Abhidhamma Pitaka (literally "beyond the dhamma", "higher dhamma" or "special dhamma", Sanskrit: Abhidharma Pitaka), is a collection of texts which give a systematic philosophical description of the nature of mind, matter and time. There are seven books in the Abhidhamma Pitaka.

  • Dhammasangani (-saṅgaṇi or -saṅgaṇī)
  • Vibhanga (vibhaṅga)
  • Dhatukatha (dhātukathā)
  • Puggalapannatti (-paññatti)
  • Kathavatthu (kathā-)
  • Yamaka
  • Patthana (paṭṭhāna)

The traditional position is that the Abhidhamma is the absolute teaching, while the suttas are adapted to the hearer. Most scholars describe the abhidhamma as an attempt to systematize the teachings of the suttas: Harvey,[46] Gethin.[47] Cousins says that where the suttas think in terms of sequences or processes the abhidhamma thinks in terms of specific events or occasions.[48]

[edit] Dhammasangani

Translations:

  • A Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics tr C. A. F. Rhys Davids, Royal Asiatic Society, 1900, reissued PTS
  • Tr U Kyaw Khine, Department for the Promotion and Propagation of the Sasana, Rangoon, 1996?/Sri Satguru Pubns, Delhi, 1999

Enumeration, definition and classification of dhammas

[edit] Vibhanga

Translation: The Book of Analysis, tr U Thittila, 1969, PTS

Analysis of 18 topics by various methods, including those of the Dhammasangani

[edit] Dhatukatha

Translation: Discourse on elements, tr U Narada, 1962, PTS

Deals with interrelations between ideas from the previous two books

[edit] Puggalapannatti

Translation: A Designation of Human Types, tr B. C. Law, 1922, PTS

Explanations of types of person, arranged numerically in lists from ones to tens

[edit] Kathavatthu

Translation: Points of Controversy, tr S. Z. Aung and C. A. F. Rhys Davids, 1915, PTS

Over 200 debates on points of doctrine

[edit] Yamaka

Translation published in Malaysia

Applies to 10 topics a procedure involving converse questions (e.g. Is X Y? Is Y X?)

[edit] Patthana

Translation in progress: Conditional Relations, volumes I and II, tr U Narada, 1969-81, PTS

Analysis of 24 types of condition

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, 2nd edn, Routledge, London, 2006, page 3
  2. ^ Gombrich, page 20
  3. ^ Hinüber, Handbook of Pali Literature, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 1996, page 5; Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, 1990, page 4; Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edn, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 2000; The World of Buddhism, ed Bechert and Gombrich, Thames and Hudson, London, 1984, page 78; Gethin, Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 1998, pages 42 and 44; New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions, 1997, page 380; Nakamura, Indian Buddhism, Japan, 1980, reissued by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, page 22. However, Schopen, Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks, University of Hawai'i Press, 1997, page 30 (reprinted from Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik, volume 10 (1985)), argues that early inscriptions are more reliable sources.
  4. ^ Gombrich, page 4
  5. ^ Gombrich, page 20
  6. ^ Morgan, Path of the Buddha, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1956, pages v, 71
  7. ^ Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, volume 28 (part 2), page 302
  8. ^ Mendelson, Sangha and State in Burma, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 1975, page 266
  9. ^ Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd edn, volume 9, Elsevier, Amsterdam/Oxford, 2006
  10. ^ Gombrich, page 20
  11. ^ pages 20f
  12. ^ page 24
  13. ^ in Bechert and Gombrich
  14. ^ Introduction to Pali, 1963, Pali Text Society, page viii
  15. ^ pages 42f
  16. ^ page 27
  17. ^ cited by Nakamura, loc. cit.
  18. ^ in Buddhist Studies in Honour of Hammalava Saddhatissa, ed Dhammapala, Gombrich and Norman, University of Jayewardenepura, 1984, page 56
  19. ^ Bechert and Gombrich; Warder, Introduction to Path of Discrimination, 1982, Pali Text Society, page xxix
  20. ^ Cousins, "Pali oral literature", in Buddhist Studies, ed Denwood and Piatigorski, Curzon Press, London, 1982/3; Harvey, page 83; Gethin, page 48; The Guide, Pali Text Society, page xxvii
  21. ^ Harvey, page 3; Warder, Path of Discrimination, Pali Text Society, pages xxxixf; Gethin, The Buddha's Path to Awakening, E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1992, page 8
  22. ^ loc. cit.
  23. ^ Hinüber
  24. ^ [1]
  25. ^ Günter Grönbold, Der buddhistische Kanon: eine Bibliographie, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1984, page 12; as noted there and elsewhere, the 1893 Siamese edition was incomplete
  26. ^ Warder, Introduction to Pali, 1963, PTS, page 382
  27. ^ Hamm in German Scholars on India, volume I, ed Cultural Department of the German Embassy in India, pub Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, 1973, translated from Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 1962
  28. ^ Cone, Dictionary of Pali, volume I, PTS, 2001
  29. ^ Norman, Pali Literature, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1983; Hinüber,op. cit.
  30. ^ Journal of the Pali Text Society, volume XV
  31. ^ loc. cit.
  32. ^ Pali Text Society; Norman; Hinüber; Harvey, Appendix; Lamotte, History of Indian Buddhism, 1958, English tr, Oriental Institute, Catholic University of Louvain, 1988
  33. ^ Norman, page 58
  34. ^ Dhammapada, ed Sumangala, pub Humphrey Milford for the Pali Text Society, London, 1914, page v
  35. ^ Mendelson, appendix
  36. ^ op. cit.
  37. ^ This can be verified by inspecting the table of contents of the VRI transcription.
  38. ^ Path, pages 311f
  39. ^ JPTS, volume XX, pages 1-42
  40. ^ The Guide, Pali Text Society, 1962, page xii, notes that all three are included in the Burmese (Sixth Council) edition of the Canon, and Mabel Bode, Pali Literature in Burma, 1909 (before that edition was published), pages 4f, says Burmese tradition includes them in this nikaya.
  41. ^ Enter Nettippakarana in the search engine at [2].
  42. ^ ([3]).
  43. ^ Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, ed Potter, volume VII, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1996
  44. ^ JPTS, volume XXVIII, pages 61f
  45. ^ Rewata Dhamma, The Buddha and His Disciples, Dhamma-Talaka Pubns, Birmingham, 2001, page 89
  46. ^ loc. cit.
  47. ^ Foundations, page 44
  48. ^ "Pali oral literature", page 7
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