Origin of Pallava

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Pallavas
Image:pallava_territories.png
Pallava kingdom c.645 CE during Narasimhavarman I
Official languages Prakrit
Tamil
Capital Kanchipuram
Government Monarchy
Preceding state Satavahana, Kalabhras
Succeeding states Cholas, Chalukya

The Pallava were a Southern Indian dynasty who established their capital at Kanchipuram in early the 4th century CE. Initially, Pallavas were in Andhra country (Palnadu) and became independent after the eclipse of Satavahanas and Ikshvakus. They extended their dominion to Tamil country and established themselves at Kanchi. The Pallavas dominated the northern parts of Tamil region until the end of the 9th century for about six hundred years. The origins of the Pallava still remains a mystery. A number of hypotheses and views have been proposed on the origin and ethnicity of the Pallavas.

Contents

[edit] Tamil Origin

The word Pallava means branch or twig in Sanskrit. The word is rendered as Tondaiyar in Tamil language. The Pallava kings at several places are called Tondamans or Tondaiyarkon. The territory of the Pallavas was known as Tundaka Visaya or Tundaka Rashtra. The word Tondan in Tamil means slave, servant, follower or helper and can either be suggestive of the subordinate position the Pallavas bore to the Satavahanas or reflect an influential position pallavas enjoyed at the time of satvahanas. On collapse of the Satvahana power, the Pallavas asserted themselves and annexed a large part of Chola territory but the epithet Tondon remained and their territory also came to be called Tondamandlam. The word Pallava (which in Sanskrit means twig or branch) is a translation of Tamil word Tondaiyar and Tondaman and this finds confirmation in some of the copper plate charters which do bring in 'tender twigs' (=pallavams) of some kind in connection with the eponymous name Pallava'. Ref name="aiyanger"> Dr Krishnaswami Aiyangar[citation needed]</ref> But the scholars reject this view since this is a later usage of the term and therefore can not be stated to have given rise to the family name Pallava. R Sthainathaier seems to connect the Pallavas with ancient Pulindas, who according him, were identical to the Kurumbas of Tondamandlam. R. Sthainathaier also states that Tondamandlam was a province under Maurya king Asoka in third century BCE and later on, it was seized by the Satavahanas and thus Tondamandlam became a feudatory to the Satavahanas.[citation needed] He further believes that Tondaiyar is Tamil rendering of Pallava. After collapse of Satavahanas in about 225 AD, the Pallavas of Tondamandlam became sovereign and expanded to river Krishna river.

[edit] Chola Origin

A view has also been propounded that the Pallavas were an offshoot from the Cholas. It is claimed that the Pallavas were a lineage of the Chola kings who went on a maritime journey and begot a child who formed a separate dynasty called Pallava (Pallavam means bud in Sanskrit, from which the eponymous name is stated to derive).[citation needed]

[edit] Sri Lankan Origin

Tamil literature relates the story of Chola king Killivalavan who moved his capital to Uraiyar after the destruction of the Chola capital of Puhar. Mudaliyar C. Rasanayagam of Colombo claims that Killi Valavan had a liaison with the daughter of Naga king Valaivanam of Manipallavanam (in Jaffna peninsula) in Ceylon. From this union was born a child who was named Tondaiman Ilantirayan whom his father, Killi Valavan, made the ruler of a territory which was named Tondamandlam with capital at Kanchi. It is pointed out that name Pallava derives from the last syllable of Manipallavanam ....the land of prince’s mother.[1]

[edit] Telugu Origin

Mahavamsa has a tradition that Buddhist monks from Pallava Bogga attended the consecration ceremony of Duttagamini of Sri Lanka. This Pallava Boga has been identified by some scholars with the dominion of Kala in Andhra Pradesh. It is pointed out that the Telugu country south of Krishna had formed the major part of Pallava kingdom till sixth century, hence, it is argued that the Pallavas may have been from Andhra lineage. Other evidences also point out that Pahlava-Kambhojas, an Indo-Iranian Aryan tribe migrated Southward to Krishna valley and established themselves. This region is called Palnadu (Pallava Nadu) even today, well-known for the great battle of Palnadu. Another name for this region since ancient times is Kammanadu / Kammarattam, which can be traced to Kambojas closely associated with Pahlavas. According to many other scholars like Wilhelm Geiger Pallavabhoga refers to Persia.[2]

[edit] Brahmanical Origin

According to Dr K. P. Jayswal, the Pallavas were a branch or twig (Sanskrit pallava) of the Brahmana royal dynasty of Vakatakas of the North. The branch was militaristic by profession and thus were able to carve out a kingdom in the South [3]. But according to H. Krishna Sastri, the Pallavas were a mixture of Brahmana and Dravidian lineages. Rayakota copper plates of the Pallavas state that a Brahmin Ashvathama was the founder of the Pallava race. Ashvathama married a Naga girl and bore a son named Skandasisya. Other plates state Skandasisya to be the eponymous king Pallava after whom the family got its name.[4] Earlier Pallava king Sivaskandavarman is probably identified with Skandasisya of the Rayakota copper plates. Some of their inscriptions state that Pallavas belonged to the Bharadvaja-gotra and had descended from Ashvathama of Bharadvaja Brahmana lineage. Ashvathama Bharadvaja was an epic hero and was son of Dronacharya, the Commander-in-chief of the Kuru army in the Mahabharata. In all probability, this appears to be a usual Brahmanical attempt at fabrication of genealogy to connect the illustrious Pallavas to the epic cycles. Or else, the Bharadavaja gotra of the Pallavas might have been due to the reason that the priests and Purohits of the Pallava rulers might have been Brahmins from Bharadavaja lineage. It is pointed out in the Aitareya Brahmana that the gotra of a Kshatriya would be the same as that of his Purohit or priest. [5]

[edit] Kshatriya Origin

Contrasted to the above stated Brahmanical origin of the Pallavas, the Talagunda inscription, on the other hand, clearly states that the Pallavas were of Kshatriya lineage.[6]

[edit] Braham-Kshatriya view

To reconcile the last two views in the foregoing discussion, Dr V. D. Mahajan has proposed that the Pallavas belonged to the caste of Braham-Kshatriyas i.e. they were Brahmanas in origin and Kshatriyas by Dharama or profession. [7]

[edit] Dr H. G. Rawlinson's views

Dr Rawilinson writes that the Pallavas had collected round themselves the Kurumbas, Marayas, Kallars and other predatory tribes and formed them into a strong and aggressive power which rose into prominence in about 325 CE on the east coast of India, between the mouths of Krishna river and Godavari. The word Pallava is synonymous with rascal, robber or predator in Tamil language, says Dr Rawilinson [8][4]. About 350 CE, the Pallavas established themselves on the east coast and occupied famous city Kanchi or Conjeeavram.

[edit] Foreign Origin

[edit] Pallava vs Pahlava

The name Pallava resembles so much with the Pahlava that there is a school of scholars like Dr V. A. Smith, Dr Jouveau Dubreuil, Dr B. L. Rice, Dr V. Venkaya, G. Coedes, Dr. K. N. SITRA RAM, Dr H. H. Wilson, Dr P.P. Bulsara, Dr Dominique Boubouleix and numerous others who trace the origin of Pallavas in the Iranian Pahlavas. [9].

Several Puranic texts refer to the ethnic name Pallava and Pahlava interchangeably, thus attesting that the Pallavas of southern India are also derived from the Iranian Pahlavas. While the Vayu Purana writes the Pahlavas as Pahnavas [10], the Markendeya Purana[11] and the Brahmanda Purana [12] write them both as Pahlavas as well as Pallavas. The Vamana Purana [13] and the Matsya Purana [14] etc only write them as Pallavas [15] .

The great Indian epic Mahabharata also sometimes uses Pallava for Pahlavas at some places[16]

According to Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary Pahlavas are written both as Pahnavas and Pallavas in Puranas and Mahabharata.[17]

(See also: Pahlavas)

Dr Cadambi Minakshi writes:

(i) The Pahladpur inscription (located in Pahladpur village in Uttar Pradesh State) which is datable to first few centuries of our era , is believed to be a record of the Pallavas in the north. This depends upon correct reading of the term “Parthivanikapalah” figuring in the said inscription. This expression has been translated as “the protector of the Parthavas army”. It has been pointed out that term Parthava here is equivalent to Sanskrit Pahlava. Though the term Pahlava indicates the name of a tribe and Pallava that of a ruling family, it has been pointed out that a tribal name Pahlava could easily turn itself into Dynasty name Pallava [18].

(ii) Yet another link between the Pahlavas of the North and the Pallava rulers of Kanchi may be found in a legend which, according to Victor Goloubew [19], takes its origin from the Scythians and plays a paramount part in the lands penetrated by the Pallavas and their culture. The Nagi legend of the Scythians which is connected with legends in Tamil literature and Pallava copper-plates as well as the annals of Cambodia carries a special significance here [20].

On similar reasoning, the same Scythian Nagi legend connects the Kambuja rulers of Indo-china with the Kambojas of the north-west. It is stated here that the close connections of the Sakas (Scythians), the Kambojas and the Pahlavas have been highlighted in numerous ancient Sanskrit texts like Mahabharata, Valmiki Ramayana, and the Puranas. In the Puranic literature, the Sakas, Kambojas Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas have been noted as allied tribes and have been referred to as pañca.gana (five hordes) [21]. These tribes were all located in the Scythian belt in Central Asia and were therefore followers of common culture and social customs.

It appears that Pallava was a just local variant of Sanskrit Pahlava just as the Indo-Chinese Kambuja is a local variant of the standard Sanskrit Kamboja (or Persian Kambaujiya/Kambujiya).

[edit] Pahlavas & Kambojas in Southwest India

The Pallavas appear to have been foreign intruders, apparently an offshoot from the Pahlavas or the Parthians of north-western India. According to Dr V. A. Smith: "It is possible that the Pallavas were not one distinct tribe or class but a mixed population composed partly of foreigners and partly of the Indian population but different in race from Tamils and taking their name from the title of an intruding foreign dynasty (Pahlava) which obtained control over them and welded them into an aggressive political power" [22].

[edit] Classical Sources

The ancient inscriptions and coins make it clear that the Pahlavas were ruling in north-west in the beginning of Christian era. There is classical evidence that the Pahlavas were in occupation of Anarta, Soparka and Kalyana region of India in post-Christian times.

Periplus (80 C AD) attests a Parthian kingdom comprising south-western parts of Kathiawad and region from Narbada to as far as Kalyana (Thana in Bombay) including the Apranta which was ruled by Pahlavas. Their capital has been mentioned as Minagara which city was different from the Minnagra of the Indo-Scythians located on the Indus[23].

"Arrian who resided in the second century at Barugaza (Bhroach) describes a Parthian sovereignty as extending from Indus to the Nerbuda. Their capital has been mentioned as Minagara....." [24]

Strabo also attests the Pahlava rule in south-west India around Narbada to as far as Thana District in Konkan (Bombay) in Maharashtra [25].

The Pahlavas governors were in-charge of Anarta and Saurashtra which is mentioned in the Junagad rock inscriptions of Scythian ruler Rudradaman I.

According to Dr Jouveau Dubreuil, Savisakha, a Pahlava minister of Rudradaman-I, was the ancestor of the Pallavas of Kanchi. From Anarta and Konkan, the Pahlavas had penetrated southern India via Kuntala or Vanavasa. "The Pallavas were immigrants from north, or properly speaking from Konkan and Anarta, into Deccan. They came into south India through Kuntala or Vanvasa..." (Jouveau Dubreuil).

It is probable that the Pahlavas had penetrated Deccan before the reign of Gautamiputra Satkarni. Gautamiputra Satkarni is stated to have put to sword the Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and the Kshahratas (=Kambojas) [26]. The defeat of Pahlavas, Kambojas etc by Gautamiputra Satakarani had probably forced them to move further into the Deccan. The Pahlavas and Kambojas appear to have made inroads into western and south-western India and the Pahlavas subsequently settled at Tondamandlam on east coast of India. When the Satavahana fortunes sagged, these Pahlavas seized the opportunity and established themselves as the lords of Kanchi.

Some early sculptures in the temple of Kanchi and Mahabalipuram depict a crown shaped like an elephant’s scalp which the Pallava kings wore on their heads. This head-dress was definitely foreign in origin and was used by the Greek kings of north-west with whom the Pahlavas (as well as Kambojas) were in close cultural, linguistic and political intercourse. It is pointed out that the Pallavas had copied this head-dress from the Greeks.[citation needed]

[edit] Indigenous Evidence

Apart of classical evidence, there are also Indian references which attest the Pahlavas, Kambojas, Sakas etc to have been in occupation of south-west India.

There is a distinct prophetic statement in the Mahabharata that the Mlechcha kings of Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlikas etc will rule the prithivi (=sacred Indo-Aryan land) unrighteously in Kaliyuga, which is too clear a statement to be ignored (Dr Raychaudhury). This statement, couched in the form of prophecy in true puranic style, is believed to allude to a historical situation (second/first century BCE downwards) which followed the collapse of Maurya and Sunga dynasties in North India when the foreign hordes of the Sakas, Pahlavas, Yavanas, Kambojas etc had entered Indian mainland and established their respective kingdoms in the sacred Indo-Aryan land.[27]

Fifth century Brahmanical text Markendeya Purana attests that the Pahlavas and Kambojas had their settlements not only in Udichya (north-west) but also in south-west India. [28].

The sixth century Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira also attests that the Pahlavas and Kambojas were in occupation of south-west (=nairRtyAM dizi) India [29].

The Kambojas as close allies of the Pahlavas are also abundantly attested to have been in south-western as well as southern India by several ancient texts. And very interestingly, Agni Purana locates two Kamboja settlements within India itself.......the Kambhoja in south-west India and the Kamboja in southern parts of India [30].

The Garuda Purana also collocates a Kamboj settlement in the neighborhood of Ashmaka, Pulinda, Jimuta, Narashtra, Lata and Karnata countries and specifically informs us that this section of Kambojas were living in southern division of India (dakshina.path.vasinah) [31]

Even the Udyogaparava of Mahabharata collates the Shakas, Pahlavas, Paradas and Kamboja-Rishikas apparently situated in/around the Anupa region i.e Anupa-Desa (Narbuda/Tapti region) in south-western India:

Shakanam Pahlavana.n cha Daradanam cha ye nripah |
Kamboja Rishika ye cha pashchim.anupakash cha ye ||5.5.15||

TRANS: The kings of the Shakas, Pahlavas, Daradas (=Paradas), and the Kamboja-Rishikas live in the west around Anupadesa or region.[32] [33]

For more on the Kambojas, Pahlavas etc in south-west India please see: [5].

[edit] Further Evidence on Kambojas/Pahlavas in South

King Yasovarman, the eighth century king of Kanauj is stated to have fought with the king of Magadha, killed the king of Vanga, reached the eastern shore, defeated the kings of Deccan, crossed the Malaya mountains (east coast of Malabar, southern Mysore), reached the southern sea and fought with the Parasika. He then received tribute from Western Ghats and turned to the north, reaching the banks of Narbada [34]. This eighth century evidence again proves that the Parasikas (=Pahlavas here) had indeed penetrated deep into the southern India.

Similarly, the Kambojas also find references in southern Indian inscriptions/records and literature. Chidambram Inscriptions (1114 CE according to Dr Hultzsch) of king Rajendra Chola references one Kamboja king making precious gift to Rajendra Chola (Epigraphia Indica, Vol V, 1898-99, pp 105-106, Edtor E. Hultzsch). Further, there is also a reference to the Kambojas having wrested north-west Bengal from the Pallas of Bengal in ninth/tenth century AD.

The above references sufficiently prove that both the Pahlavas and Kambojas had penetrated southern, central and eastern India. It is probable that the Pallavas of Kanchi whom Dr V. A. Smith states as a mixture of foreigners and Indigenous non-Tamil population had included the Kambojas as well.

[edit] On Pahlava-Kamboja connections

The Kambojas and Pahlavas have been shown as allied Iranian tribes of Uttarapatha in several ancient references. Kirfel's list of Uttarapatha countries of the Bhuvanakosha locates the Pahlavas along with the Tusharas, Chinas, Angalaukikas, Barbaras, Kambojas, Daradas, Bahlikas and other countries of the Udichya division of ancient India. The Balakanda of the Ramayana states that the Pahlavas along with Kambojas and some other Kshatriya tribes were jointly created by sage Vasishtha through the divine powers of Shavala (55/2-3). The kings of the Pahlavas, Kambojas, Tukharas were also present at the Rajasuya sacrifice of king Yudhishtra. The Shanti Parva of Mahabharata also associates the Pahlavas with the Gandharas, Kambojas, Shakas, Tusharas, Sabaras, Barbaras, etc. and addresses them all as the Barbaric tribes of the Uttarapatha (MBH 12.65.13-15). The Udyoga-Parva of Mahabharata groups the Pahlavas with the Shakas, Paradas and the Kambojas-Rishikas and locates them all in/around Anupa region in western India (MBH 5.5.15). The Buddhist drama Mudrarakshas by Visakhadutta says that the Parasikas (=Pahlavas here) and the Kambojas had both joined the composite army of Chandragupta Maurya consoisting of some other formidable warrior clans of the north-west, mostly Iranians (Mudrarakshas, II). Manusmriti (X.43-44) states that the Pahlavas, Kambojas and some other tribes like the Sakas, Yavanas, Paradas, Dravidas etc were originally noble Kshatriyas, but later on, due to their non-observance of sacred Brahmanical codes as well as their neglect of the priestly class, they were gradually relegated to the status of Mlechchas. Numerous Puranic texts associate the Pahlavas and the Kambojas with the Sakas, Yavanas and Paradas and call them as panca-ganah (five-hordes). These five hordes were militaristic allies of the Haihaya and Taljunga Kshatriyas of Yadava line and were chiefly responsible for the dethroning king Bahu of Kosala. There are several more ancient references like these in the ancient Sanskrit texts attesting close links of Pahlavas and the Kambojas. Therefore, all this ancient indigenous evidence does show that the Kambojas and Pahlavas were indeed closely allied Iranian tribes living in the north-west.

[edit] On Pallava-Kambuja Connections

The Pallava is a simple variant of Sanskrit Pahlava as the Indo-Chinese Kambuja is simple variant of Sanskrit Kamboja.

According to celebrated French investigator G. Coedes, an authority on Cambodian history, there is seen a close kinship between the Kambu-Mera legend on the origin of the Kambuja royal dynasty of Kambodia and the genealogical myth of the Pallavas of Kanchi (Conjeevaram) [35].

G. Coedes further writes: "The cylindrical coiffure of pre-Angkorian images of Vishnu found in Kambuja can be regarded as showing marked Iranian influence [36]. It is true that the immediate model for this hair style is found in the sculptures of the Pallava kings. But we also know that one group of scholars is convinced of the northern origin of the Pallavas, maintaining that they are the descendants of the Pahlavas, that is, the Parthians[37]...... Finally, even the name of the Kambujas, the heir of Funan may be related to the Iranian Kambojas....It would be impudent to push these comparisons too far, but they are worth pointing out, especially, because the discovery at Oc Eo in western Cochin China of an intaglio representing a libation to fire and of a cabochon with a Sassanid effigy has furnished tangible proof of Funan’s relations with Iranian world" .[38]

It has been pointed out that some families from the Kambojas of Southern India, the allies of the Pahlavas, had sailed to Indo-China and founded the Kambuja/Kamboja principality in Mekong Basin, north of Funan. Later it grew powerful, engulfed the Hindu kingdom of Funan and thus evolving itself into one of the very powerful and glorious empires in the then world. G. Coedes, an authority on Cambodian history sees close kinship between the Pallavas of Kanchi (whom he identifies with Iranian Pahlavas) and the Kambujas of Indo-China (whom he seems to connect with the Iranian Kambojas).

In view of the close social, cultural and geographical connections of the ancient Kambojas and the Pahlavas of the north-west as seen in ancient Sanskrit texts, a close kinship about the origin of the Kambujas of Cambodia and Pallavas of Kanchi is but natural since Kambuja rulers of Cambodia are also believed to be an offshoot from the ancient Kambojas who had sailed from southern India (or else from Sri Lanka) to the Far East and founded the Kambuja colony in Indo-China in post-Christian period.

[edit] Criticism of Foreign Origin Theory

Some writers criticize the foreign origin of the Pallavas. They say that the kingdom of Pallavas in southern India was located thousands of miles away from the northwestern Pahlavas and there was also a time-frame discrepancy between the ancient Pahlavas and the early Mediaeval era Pallavas of Kanchi. Therefore, it is not appropriate to connect the Pallavas with the Iranian Pahlavas. Furthermore, the Pallavas of Kanchi are known to have been Brahmanical followers, the devotees of Hindu religion & culture and patrons of the Sanskrit learning. They are also known to have performed Asvamedha sacrifices which exclusively belong to Hindu culture. It is further pointed out that the earliest inscriptions of the Pallavas are similar to Nasik inscriptions of Gautamiputra Satkarni. Their accounts are also said to be similar to those of the Satavahanas. All this evidence, according the critics, point out to the indigenous origin of the Pallavas.

But it is stated that the critics’ objection regarding the time-frame discrepancy or the distance factor does not hold the ground in view of the numerous references produced in the forgoing discussion. The Pahlavas, the supposed ancestors of the Pallavas, had been subjects of the Satavahanas for centuries and therefore were likely to have been influenced by illustrious and favorite Gautamiputra Satakarani and other Satavahanas who were Brahmanical followers and thus soon got acclimattised to the indigenous environs. This is the reason that once the Pallavas became independent, they also followed the Satavahanas in the matters of royal and religious culture and duties like the performance of Asvamedha sacrifices and adoption of Brahmanical religion and Hindu culture. Being settled deep within the remotest parts of India in the heart of predominant Hindu population, it was also a political sagacity to adopt Hinduism so as to gain the political, military and moral support of the local population. The fact that the original inscriptions of the Pallavas were written in Prakrit also alludes to their being from the north-west. But soon as they became fully indianised with time, Pallavas switched to Sanskrit language. The case is not unique in Indian history. Earlier, a section of Iranian Kambojas (See: Language and ethnicity of Kambojas) are also known to have become similarly Hinduised so much so that they became especially renowned as Vedic teachers and their homeland as seat of Brahmanical learning. (See: Brahmanism of Ancient Kambojas for evidence).

And lastly, the Talagunda inscriptions clearly state that the Pallavas were Kshatriyas. And it is also an indisputable fact of history that the ancient Sanskrit texts like numerous Puranic texts, Manusmriti, Mahabharata etc also address the Pahlavas including allied tribles like the Kambojas, Sakas, Paradas, Yavanas etc as Kshatriyas. All this evidence sufficiently neutralizes the objections raised by the critics of the 'Foreign Origin' of the Pallavas.

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ See: Ancient India, 2003, pp 704-705, Dr V. D. Mahhajan
  2. ^ Mahavamsa, Trans., 194, n. 2.; Dr. G.P. Malalasekara also accepts this view
  3. ^ Quoted in: Administration and Social Life under the Pallavas, 1977, p 41, Cadambi Minakshi; Ancient India, 2003, p 703, Dr V. D. Mahajan.
  4. ^ Ancient India, 2003, p 707, Dr V. D. Mahajan
  5. ^ As per Aitareya Brahmana evidence, for the purpose of performance of Yajna/other religious rituals, the gotra of a Kshatriya would be same as that of his family priest/Chaplain/Purohit (i.e. A Kshatrya’s gotra is the same as that of his family priest for religious functions/rituals etc..... See Aitareya Brahmana, Ch 32, Kanda, 7, verse 25; Also see Asvalayana Srauta-Sutra XII,15; Also :Some Kshatrya Tribes of ancient India, 1924, p 13-14, Dr B. C. Law; also see: Vaisnavism, Saivism and minor Religious Systems p 12, Sir R. G. Bhandarkar etc). It is because of this fact that the ancient Licchavis though Varatya Kshatriyas (See: Manusmriti verse X.22; also see: Jaiansutra, Part II, S.B.E., Vol XLV, p 321), have been called Vasetthas or Vasishthas in the Buddhist and Jaina sacred texts since their family purohits or priests were the Vasishtha Brahmanas (op cit. p 13-24, 150, Dr B. C. Law). Buddhist and Jaina Canonical works specifically inform us that that the Licchivis were Vasitthas or Vasishthas. Lord Buddha also spoke to the Licchavis as Vasishthas e.g. Licchavika ahansu. Anyadapi Bhagvan. Bhagavanaha, anyadapi Vasittha. Bhutapurvah Vasittha atitmadhvane Pancale Janapada Kampillanagare raja Brahmdatto nama rajyam karesi (Mahavastu Avadana--- see: Le Mahavastu edited by R. Senart, Vol I, pp 286, 289, 300); Life of the Buddha, p 97ff, Rockhill; Sacred Books of the East, XXII, p xii; Jainasutras, S.B.E. Vol XXII, p 193, Jacobi etc). Similarly, the Mallas, though Kshatriyas (Manusmriti X.22) are also addressed as Vasitthas or Vasishthas (see: Digha Nikaya, (Pali Text Series), Vol III, p 209)
  6. ^ Ancient India, 2003, p 705, Dr V. D. Mahajan
  7. ^ Ancient India, 2003, p 707, Dr V. D. Mahajan.
  8. ^ Pallavar [pallavar] , s. rakes, gallants, turttar; 2. low persons, the base, kizmakkal; 3. many persons, palar. The above definition of Pallavar (Qu: is Pallavar same as Pallava?) is taken from page 674 of J. P. Fabricious’s Tamil English Dictionary.
  9. ^ For further references on Pallava/Pahlava connection, see R. Gopalan: History of the Pallas of Kanchi (Madras, 1928), Chapter II; Cadambi Minakshi, Administration and Social Life under the Pallavas (Madras, 1938) reviewed in BEFEO, XXXVIII, p 331-32
  10. ^ Vayu Purana: 45.115
  11. ^ Bangavasi Office, Calcutta Edition: 57.23
  12. ^ Bangavasi Office, Calcutta Edition: I.2.16-46; Sri Venkateshwara Press, Bombay Edition: I.2.16-64
  13. ^ Vamana Purana: 13.37
  14. ^ Matsya Purana: Sri Venkateshwara Press, Bombay Edition: 113.40; Nandalal Mor Edition, Clive Row, Calcutta: 113.40
  15. ^ See also: A Critical Study of the Geographical Data of Early Puranas, 1972, Table, pp 117-119, Dr M. R. Singh
  16. ^ .
    UttarAshchApare MlechchhA janA Bharatasattama ||63||
    YavanAshcha sa KAmbojA DAruNA Mlechchha jAtayaH |
    -----------------------------------------------------------------------
    ShUdrAbhIrAtha DaradAH KAshmIrAH PashubhiH saha |
    KhashikAshcha TukhArAshcha PallavA girigahvarAH ||66||
    (Mahabharata, Bhishama Parava 6.11.63-66)
  17. ^ Monier-Williams defines Pallava = Pl. N. of a people MBh. Pur. (v.l. for %{Pahlava}) [1]
  18. ^ Administration and Social Life Under the Pallavas – 1938, p 20, Cadambi Minakshi
  19. ^ Les legendes de le Nagi et de l'Apsaras, Bulletin de l'Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient, Victor Goloubew
  20. ^ Administration and Social Life Under the Pallavas – 1938, pp 20, 25, 39, Cadambi Minakshi
  21. ^ See for example, Brahama Purana, 8.36; Harivamsa 14.4
  22. ^ Early History of India, 1924, Dr V. A. Smith.
  23. ^ Hist and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, p 121, 178, Dr Majumdar, Dr Pusalkar etc
  24. ^ Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Vol I, p 179, James Tod
  25. ^ History and Culture of Indian People, The Classical Age
  26. ^ Ancient India, 2003, p 395, 705, Dr V. D. Mahajan; The Kshahratas have been identified with the Kambojas by scholars like Dr T. L. Shah etc
  27. ^ .
    viparite tada loke purvarupan kshayasya tat ||28||
    bahavo mechchha rajanah prithivyam manujadhipa |
    mithyanushasinah papa mrishavadaparayanah.||29 ||
    Andhrah Shakah Pulindashcha Yavanashcha naradhipah |
    Kamboja Aurnikah Shudrastathabhira narottama. ||30 ||
    (MBH 23/187/28-30)
    • A same Kaliyuga scenario is also depicted in the Bhagavata Purana which also states that the Mlecchas rulers of the Andhras, Abhiras, Gardabhis, Kankas, Yavanas, Turushkas, Gurundas and Maulas (Maunas) etc will rule unrighteously in Kaliyuga [2]. The Gardhabins and Gurundas of the Bhagavata Purana refer to the Iranian Kambojas and Pahlavas (cf: Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Vol I, 2002, p 189-90, James Tod). Both these terms 'literally' means the people connected with the Donkeys/Asses etc. Since the north-west Kambojas were also known as Ashvakas (the people connected with the horses), the irate Brahmanical class of Madhyadesa out of malice has disparagingly labeled the Ashvakas (the horse-people) as Gardabhins (the donkey-people) etc.
    • A further clue to the Parasika (=Pahlava here), Abhira, Saka, Yavana, Kamboja invading hordes from north-west having entered Sindhu, Rajasthan and Gujarat etc in large numbers, wresting political control of northern India and establishing their respective kingdoms/pricipalities in the Indo-Aryan land is provided in Brahata Katha of Kshmendra also. According to this Brahmanical text, the chaotic situation created by these invading Mlechcha hordes is stated to have ended with the destruction of these Saka, Kamboja, Yavana, Parsika invading hordes by king Vikramaditya of Ujjaini (60 c BC) and the establishment of Vikram era:
    ata shrivikramadityo helya nirjitakhilah |
    Mlechchana Kamboja. Yavanan neechan Hunan Sabarbran ||
    Tushara.Parsikaanshcha tayakatacharan vishrankhalan |
    hatya bhrubhangamatreyanah bhuvo bharamavarayate ||
    (Brahata Katha, 10/1/285-86, Kshmendra)
    • There are important references to the warring Mleccha hordes of the Pahlavas, Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas etc in the Bala Kanda of the Valmiki Ramayana also (1.54.18-23; 1.55.2-3):
    tasya humbha rava uthsristah Pahlavah shatasho nripa || 1-54-18
    nashayanti balam sarvam vishvamitrasya pashyatah || 1-54-19a ||
    taih asit samvrita bhuumih Shakaih-Yavana mishritaih || 1.54-21 ||
    --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    taih taih Yavana-Kamboja barbarah ca akulii kritaah || 1-54-23 ||
    --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    tasya humkaarato jatah Kamboja ravi sannibhah |
    udhasah tu atha sanjatah Pahlavah shastra panayah || 1-55-2 ||
    yoni deshaat ca Yavanah Shakri deshat Shakah tathaa |
    roma kupesu Mlecchah ca Haritah sa Kiratakah || 1-55-3 ||
    Foremost Indologists like Dr H. C. Raychadhury clearly see in these verses the glimpses of the struggles of the Hindus with the mixed invading hordes of the barbaric tribes of Pahlavas, Shaks, Yavanas, Kambojas etc from north-west. The time frame for these struggles is second century BCE downwards. Dr Raychadhury fixes the date of the present version of the Valmiki Ramayana around/after second century CE (See: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 3-4). [3]
  28. ^ Markendeya 58.30-32; Geographical Data in Early Purana, 1972, p 134-135, Dr M. R. Singh; Ancient Kamboja People and the Country 1981, p 305, Dr Kamboj
  29. ^ .
    Nairrtyam dizi dezah Pahlava Kamboja Sindhu Sauvirah | 14.17
    (Brhatsamhita 14.17a-d); Geographical Data in Early Purana, 1972, p 134-135, Dr M. R. Singh; Ancient Kamboja People and the Country 1981, p 305, Dr Kamboj; cf also: India as Seen in the Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira, 1969, Dr A. M. Shastri, Reader in Ancient Indian History & Culture, Nagpur University,
  30. ^ Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, p 305, Dr J. L. Kamboj.
  31. ^
    pulinda ashmaka jimuta narrashtara nivasinah:
    carnata kamboja ghata dakshinapathvasinah:
    Garuda Purana 1/15/13)
  32. ^ There seems to be a copyist’s mistake in this verse of Mahabharata since per Puranic accounts, it is the Paradas and not the Daradas who form a militaristic group with the Shakas, Pahlavas and the Kambojas—the so-called panca-ganah (five-hordes) of Puranic accounts. Further, based on strict Sanskrit grammar, Sanskrit scholars like prof. Misra identify the Rishikas also as a section of Kambojas.
  33. ^ While discussing the Anupa, Vidarbha, and the Rishika, Dr S. B. Chaudhuri takes the tribes/ethnic settlements referenced in the above verse of Mahabharata as located in/around Maharashtra region. Therefore, the Kambojas, Pahlavas, Shakas etc who are bracketed with the Rishikas and Anupas in the above epic verse, also naturally refer branches of these people located in the southern division, in close neighborhood to the Rsihikas & Anupas etc (See: Ethnic Settlements in Ancient India: A Study on the Puranic Lists of the Peoples of Bharatavarsa, 1955, p 71, Dr Shashi Bhusan Chaudhuri).
  34. ^ Ancient India, 2000, p 630, Dr V. D. Mahajan
  35. ^ The Indianised States of Southeast Asia, 1968, p 66, G. Coedes
  36. ^ Vishnu mitres de l indochine occidentle, BEFEO, XLI, p 249, Pierre Dupont
  37. ^ See Refs: R. Gopalan: History of the Pallas of Kanchi (Madras, 1928), Chapter II; Cadambi Minakshi, Administration and Social Life under the Pallavas (Madras, 1938) reviewed in BEFEO, XXXVIII, p 331-32
  38. ^ Indianised States of Southeast India, 1968, p 47, G. Coedes.

[edit] References

  • Ancient India, 2003, Dr V. D. Mahajan
  • A History of South India, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002), Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955)
  • Les Etats hindouises d'Indochine et d'Indonesie, 1963, G. Coedes
  • Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, Dr J. L. Kamboj.
  • History and Culture of Indian People, (Editors) Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar.
  • Indianised States of Southeast Asia, 1968, G. Coedes (Trans by Susan Brown Cowing
  • South Indian Inscriptions - http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/
  • See Dr. Samar Abbas, India's Parthian Colony, May 2003 [6]
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