National myth
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A national myth is an inspiring narrative or anecdote about a nation's past. Such myths often serve as an important national symbol and affirm a set of national values. A national myth may sometimes take the form of a 'national epic'. A considerable amount of related material is at civil religion.
A 'national myth' may be a legend or fictionalized narrative, but have been elevated to a serious mythological, symbolical and esteemed levels to be true by the nation (Renan 1882). It might simply over-dramatize true incidents, omit important historical details, or add details for which there is no evidence; or it might simply be a fictional story that no one takes to be true literally (see Abizadeh 2004), but contains a symbolic meaning for the nation. The national folklore of many nations includes a "founding myth", which may involve a struggle against colonialism or a war of independence. In some cases, the meaning of the national myth may become disputed among different parts of the population.
In some places, the national myth may be spiritual in tone, and refer to stories of the nation's founding at the hands of God, gods, leaders favored by gods, and other supernatural beings.
National myths serve many social and political purposes. In totalitarian dictatorships, national myths often exist only for the purpose of state-sponsored propaganda. The leader might be given, for example, a mythical supernatural life history in order to make himself or herself seem god-like and supra-powerful (see also cult of personality). However national myths exist in every society, in liberal regimes they can serve the purpose of inspiring civic virtue and self-sacrifice (see Miller 1995), or shoring up the power of dominant groups and legitimating their rule.
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[edit] Examples of "national myths"
[edit] Albania
Skanderbeg remains the cornerstone of Albanian national identity. His figure is clothed with such mystical powers that all national movements since the birth of Albanian nationalism have evoked Skanderbeg's deeds against the Ottomans in the fifteenth century. Legends abound of Skanderbeg prowess; his fiery steed who could jump from one mountaintop to the next, his powerful arm that could cut his enemy in half with a single blow, his exceptional cunning in luring the enemy and achieving the impossible, and especially his invincibility in battle.
[edit] Britain
The legend of King Arthur (the Arthurian romance) is important in the mythology of Great Britain. He is the central character in the cycle of legends known as the Matter of Britain.
[edit] Canada
The "loyalist migration" of Americans loyal to the United Kingdom from the United States to Canada following the American Revolution, has long been a national founding-myth of Canada. The story is used to suggest that Canadians are fundamentally more Tory than citizens of the United States, that is, more in tune with such values as monarchism, Anglicanism, and civil hierarchy. In recent years, however, these "loyalist" values have largely fallen out of fashion, and as a result the story of the loyalist migration is now used only to justify the event that started the formation of modern Canada, rather than to promote loyalist values.
The proportion of immigrants that were actually "loyalists" was likely to be significant immediately following the US revolution years, but it has been argued that much of the immigration from United States to Canada between the American Revolution and the War of 1812 was because of surplus cheap and plentiful land that was available and burgeoning business activity that resulted, rather than out of a sense of loyalty to the British crown. Immigration increased heavily over the subsequent decades of the 19th century from Europe (majority British Isles) and the vast majority of these immigrants had no such staunch loyalist affiliations.
The War of 1812 is the subject of another national myth in which Canada defines itself in opposition to the United States. Some Canadians claim that Canada won the war, and the comment that "Canadians burnt down the White House" may be used by Canadian patriots to mock the United States.
The 20th Century war poem In Flanders' Fields has achieved legendary status in contemporary Canada.
[edit] China
In both mainland China and Taiwan, one of the most important parts of Chinese nationalism is the invention of gunpowder, paper making, printing and the compass. The Wuchang Uprising and the creation of the Republic of China under Sun Yat-sen also forms an important part of modern Chinese nationalism.
Within the People's Republic of China, the Long March is another such event. In Taiwan, the 228 Incident has also become part of the national folklore.
Other prominent stories of Chinese nationalist ideology include the Yellow Emperor as the ancestor of all Chinese, the idea that all Chinese are the 'sons of the dragon', the concept of "5,000 years of Chinese history", and the ideology of the Zhonghua Minzu(Chinese nation).
[edit] England
England's Sir Francis Drake remains a national hero for his attacks on the Spanish Armada. Despite his death during a failed raid, Drake remains a legendary figure who circumnavigated the globe, destroyed dozens of Spanish warships, and (apocryphally) was the secret lover of Queen Elizabeth. His jaunty, daring attitude in the face of overwhelming opposition remains a symbol of pride for the English nation.
[edit] Ethiopia
According to legend, the first emperor of Ethiopia, Menelik I, was the son of the Biblical King Solomon and Makeda, the Queen of Sheba.
[edit] Finland
The Kalevala is Finland's national epic compiled from Finnish and Karelian folk lore in 19th century by Elias Lönnrot. Its first publication in 1835 - well-timed in the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland where the first ideas of a complete independence began to form - started a surge of interest in examining "Finnishness" in paintings, sculptures, writings etc. by Finnish artists in a wave of national romanticism later termed Karelianism.
[edit] France
In the Middle Ages, the legends and myths of Charlemagne, as the first Christian king, helped to consolidate and romanticize Frankish power, and Charlemagne legends spread throughout France and most of Europe. The chansons de geste relating to the Matter of France romanticize the national founding legends about Charlemagne and his paladins, Roland (of The Song of Roland) and Oliver. Originally, the Matter of France focused on the conflict between the Franks and Saracens or Moors during the period of Charles Martel and Charlemagne.
Schoolchildren in France were long taught to trace their ancestry to the Gauls. Vercingétorix is a national hero, whose defeat with grandeur is to be contrasted with the treacherous Julius Caesar. The popular cartoon and comic book character Asterix is a Gaul who resists Roman rule.
After the conquest of Soissons in 486, a soldier is said to have broken a vase to deny it to Clovis I. Years later, while reviewing the troops, Clovis broke the soldier's skull, admonishing the others to "Remember the Soissons vase." That kings never forget, or are always right, may be taken as lessons.
At one time the execution of King Louis was likewise a national myth which played up the triumph of the common people over the out-of-touch aristocracy, exemplified by Queen Marie Antoinette's statement (actually a misquote) of "Let them eat cake" when she was told the people had no bread. The French Revolution gave rise to the belief that France had a special role to carry its universal values to the world (the mission civilisatrice), which was used to justify the Napoleonic Wars and France's overseas colonial empire.
[edit] Germany
In the Battle of Teutoburg Forest of the year 9, united Germanic tribes led by Arminius defeated three Roman Legions, preventing Germany from becoming a Roman province. The historical facts were only recorded by Romans, but oral reports, in which the battle developed into a description of "slaying the dragon", might have developed into the Nibelungensaga. Written down as the Nibelungenlied in the 12th century, it connects old Norse mythology with recounts of actual history of the 5th/6th century plus contemporary events. Arminius, called Hermann by Martin Luther when the Roman records were rediscovered, became a popular figure in the 19th century. At that time, the fairy tales collected by the Brothers Grimm were important in developing a romantic conception of a folk-based German nation at a time when "Germany" was nothing more than a geographic expression comprising dozens of small states, with real princes and princesses in abundance. In collecting these traditional stories from among the people, the brothers were partially motivated by a desire to help create a German identity.
[edit] India (Bharat)
The Kathas (stories) of Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa are of immense religious and philosophical importance within the Republic of India. These two epics are traditionally called Itihāsas (Sanskrit, literally, history). The Purāṇas (Sanskrit, literally, ancient) also form a profound literary base for several traditions and beliefs of Hindus. While the Vedas, which form the source texts of Hinduism, are mostly seen as sources of elaborate rituals and metaphysics, the Itihasas together with the Puranas, being some of the most ancient writings in the world, form the major basis for the Hindu religion today.
From the Ramayana, known as the "Ādikāvya" (the first poem), the figure of Rama is venerated all over India as the embodiment of Dharma, virtue and respect. He is thus called the "Maryāda puruṣottama" (the ultimate man of respect). His wife Sita is similarly held as the embodiment of chastity and womanhood. Hanuman, the vanara servant of Rama, is held to be the model bhakta (devotee). Similarly, the Mahabharata and the Puranas provide several stories that are cherished and emulated all over India.
From later times, the Maratha king Shivaji is widely held as a symbol of valour and defiance against tyranny all over India, especially in Maharashtra. Subash Chandra Bose, Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and other participants in the Indian freedom struggle are also taught to school children as characters worthy of emulation.
[edit] Iran
Persian heros from Shahnama such as Rustam (symbol of power), Kaveh (symbol of fighting the tyranny and Arash (symbol of defending the country) play a vivid role in the consciousness of today's Iranians.
The Zoroastrian story about the colour of fire giving people joy is expressed in popular expressions each year during the Persian Fire Festival (Chaharshanbe Suri).
Mythological objects such as The Cup of Jamshid (Jaam-e Jam) and other mythical figures from the Persian mythology such as Shahrzad (the story-teller), Peri, Anahita, Mithra and Homa are universally known in Iran and are used for naming people, institutions, companies etc.
[edit] Israel
The history of the Jewish people and the nation of Israel (referring both to the modern state of Israel and the Jewish diaspora interchangeably) is recorded in the Old Testament of the Bible. The modern state of Israel was founded based on Zionists — both Jewish and Christian — who believed that the Old Testament foretold and justified the establishment of a Jewish state in the Land of Israel.
[edit] Italy
The Roman empire was the prominent national myths under Fascism, which itself had a symbol of imperial Rome as its symbol. The Risorgimento and World War I (sometimes termed "fourth war of independence") were also common themes. After fascism, political correctness demanded less patriotism in politics: the main political parties had their roots in Catholicism (that had opposed Italian unity) or Marxism, and were not keen to perpetuate patriotic national myths.
Imperial Rome is today uncommon as a source of national identity. The focus on Risorgimento moved more to figures as Giuseppe Garibaldi and Giuseppe Mazzini (both considered criminals and dangerous radicals in their lifetimes) and prime minister Camillo Cavour, for his diplomatics skills, rather than the ousted Savoy kings.
Christian heritage is important to a large sector of the population, but is not universally shared; the role of the Church has been a matter of debate in recent years as the Vatican has become more and more active in Italian politics, especially under the papacy of Benedict XVI.
In popular culture, Italian food and football (especially the 1982 victory) are important themes.
[edit] Japan
The legendary founder and first emperor of Japan was Emperor Jimmu, a lineal descendant of the goddess Amaterasu. This genealogy was used to justify the rule of the Imperial house.
[edit] Korea
According to myth, a tiger and a bear living in a cave prayed to the god of the sky, Hwanin, to become human. He ordered them to remain out of sunlight for 100 days and to eat only 20 cloves of garlic and mugwort. The tiger left, but the bear was transformed into a woman; now alone, she prayed for a companion, and Hwanin took her for his own wife. Their child, Dangun, became the first king of Korea, by tradition on October 3, 2333 BC.
The "founding myth" was revived several times in history to encourage Korean nationalism, and is taught in South Korean schools as a lesson of reverence, patience, and perseverance. The name Dangun itself is used colloquially to express satisfaction with excellence or rightness.
[edit] North Korea
The Democratic People's Republic of Korea is perhaps the most thoroughly propagandized populace in the modern world, with the national identity intrinsically tied to the extensive personality cults of President Kim Jong-il and his father, the "Great Leader" Kim Il-sung. Many elements of their lives and of national history have been rewritten to exalt them and to conform to and support the ideology of juche.
Kim Il-sung is commemorated as a leading commander of the independence movement against Japan. Over the years, his early life was attributed greater and greater hardship, and his abilities increased commensurately to the nearly supernatural. He is for instance said to have participated in 100,000 battles against the Japanese in 15 years. His ancestors were refashioned into heroic revolutionary fighters.
Since at least 1982 Kim Jong-il is said to have been born in an army camp on the sacred Baitou Mountain, amidst thunderstorms and rainbows (even though it was winter). It links him to the guerilla movement against the Japanese occupation and provides a spiritual foundation for his rule. He is then said to have graduated from the elite Namsan School in Pyongyang, and to have served as a construction and factory worker—so inspirationally in the latter to have sparked a mass movement, the "Model Machine Movement of Loyalty for Emulating Lathe No. 26." [1]
[edit] Mexico
The appearance of Our Lady of Guadalupe to the Aztec convert Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin underpins Roman Catholicism in Mexico and to some extent all of Latin America. That the Virgin Mary appeared to a native, and the image on his apron represents her as olive-skinned, represents the accessibility of the Church to the indigenous peoples. Various indigenous advocates in Mexico have adopted the Lady as a symbol.
[edit] Norway
The earliest national myth is probably the founding of the Kingdom of Norway by king Harald Fairhair in the middle ages; shortly thereafter, the christianisation of Norway by king Olav Tryggvason became another important historical event. In modern times, the declaration of independence from Denmark and the Constitution of Norway became important symbols of nationalism; May 17, Constitution day, is still a major event in Norway and for Norwegians abroad.
In popular culture, Norwegians usually pride themselves with living in "the best country in the world" (a claim backed in recent years by the United Nations's Human Development Index), and with their diversity of dialects in Norwegian language (even though this diversity is so small that most dialects are mutually intelligible in a country that is over 2,000 km long).
[edit] Portugal
There are quite a few myths surrounding the first recognized king of Portugal Dom Afonso Henriques, and his followers. Amongst them are the stories concerning Dom Egas Moniz's willingness to sacrifice himself and his family to the king of Leon because of Afonso's rebellion; Martim Moniz's sacrifice during the conquest of Lisbon from the Moors, and Afonso's own fights with his mother, Dona Teresa, self-styled queen of Portugal.
The Lusiads an epic poem by Luís de Camões is often regarded as Portugal's "national epic". In it, Camões presents the Portuguese people as descendants from Lusus, companion of Dionysus and mythical founder of Lusitania, and loosely describes the country's history until the mid 16th century, focussing mainly on Portuguese discoveries from the 14th to the 17th centuries. Camões goes further, by suggesting that the Portuguese nation might be the offspring of Odysseus (mythical founder of Lisbon, or Olissipo).
[edit] Scotland
According to legend, the Scots are descended from an Egyptian princess named Scoti.
Some kings of Scotland have achieved legendary status. Cináed I (Kenneth Mac Alpine), who is thought of as the first true king of Scotland, uniting the Pictish kigdoms and Goidelic Dál Riata. Robert I (Robert the Bruce), notable in the traditional story of his being inspired by a spider while hiding in a cave before fighting a guerrilla war against English occupation.
[edit] Serbia
The 1389 Battle of Kosovo was a defining event in Serbian history and identity, although the historical record is sparse. A Serbian-led Christian army was defeated by the Ottoman Empire through treachery, but not before Miloš Obilić assassinated the sultan Murad I, sacrificing himself to oppose tyranny and defend his people.
[edit] Switzerland
A highly celebrated national myth is that of William Tell, the legendary Swiss hero who defied the Austrians, leading to rebellion and independence for Switzerland. The historical authenticity of a person named Tell has been disputed. The related Rütli-Schwur describes the legendary oath that markes the beginning of the Old Swiss Confederacy.
[edit] United States
The travails of the Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower and during their first years in America, are often told to underscore quintessential American values such as religious freedom (the voyagers seen as fleeing religious persecution) and industriousness (required to survive the harsh New England winter), and individual pursuit of happiness. In actuality, the Puritans were outnumbered by unaffiliated settlers and servants, and the Plymouth Colony settlers were seeking separation from all other cultures (separatism), not exactly individual happiness.
Stories of Benjamin Franklin and the tolerant Colony of Pennsylvania are other national myths illustrating that America was a land of religious freedom, oppurtunity and pursuit of happiness.
Pocahontas is said to have saved the life of John Smith from her father Powhatan, and later adopted European customs. Nearly all accounts, however—including Smith's—are at best highly romanticized.
The American Revolution is the source of many national myths, such as the legendary ride of Paul Revere, or Nathan Hale's purported last words ("...My only regret is that I have but one life to lose for my country"). These legends illustrate the virtues of bravery and vigilance, considered essential to the United States.
The person of George Washington is particularly idealized as the "father of the country." Parson Weems invented some of the tales about Washington's life, including the story in which a young Washington admits to cutting down a cherry tree with a hatchet, often repeated to children to underscore the virtue of truthfulness.
The numerous and complex causes of the American Civil War are romantically simplified as either a war to "free the slaves" or (chiefly in the South) to defend agrarian tradition and independence against homogenizing industrial society. Pickett's Charge during the Battle of Gettysburg is sometimes given as the moment the Confederacy had lost the war, though the CSA survived for almost two additional years.
The settlement of the American West has also been a source of many national myths, which glorify the frontier virtues of rugged individualism and self-reliance. After the closing of the frontier, stories by Horatio Alger and others depicted diligence, honesty and pluck as the chief qualities required for upward social mobility in the industrial age—not to mention ingraining the view of the nation as a true meritocracy. A quote in the 1962 movie The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance is made about the use of Wild West stories in the US: "This is the west, sir. When the legend becomes fact, print the legend."
[edit] References
- Abizadeh, Arash. 2004. "Historical Truth, National Myths, and Liberal Democracy." The Journal of Political Philosophy 12.3: 291-313.
- Miller, David. 1995. On Nationality. Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-828047-5.
- Renan, Ernest. 1882. "Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?"
