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Pulaski Academy (PA) is a private not-for-profit day care, preschool, elementary, and junior/senior high school in the Pleasant Valley neighborhood of Little Rock, Arkansas. PA was established in 1971 and remains as the only independent, non-sectarian, college preparatory school in Arkansas.

PA is accredited by ISACS (Independent Schools of the Central States), ANSAA (Arkansas Non-public School Accrediting Association) and NCA CASI (North Central Association Commission on Accreditation and School Improvement) and CITA (Commission on International and Trans-Regional Accreditation). PA is a member of the Cum Laude Society, National College Board and NAIS (National Association of Independent Schools).

Pulaski Academy was named 2003 “Best of the Best” Private High School by the readers of an Arkansas Democrat-Gazette contest.

The school's mascot is the Bruin and school colors are navy blue and gold. Average enrollment is approximately 1270 students, with a student/teacher ratio of 11 to 1.

Contents 1 Athletics 2 Fine Arts 3 Honor System 3.1 Four Core Values 3.1.1 Respect 3.1.2 Responsibility 3.1.3 Integrity 3.1.4 Excellence 4 Notable Alumni 5 External links 6 Background 7 Plot 8 Critical reaction 8.1 Plot versus illustration 8.2 Use of page breaks 8.3 Gender roles 8.4 Sales 9 Cultural effects 10 See also 11 References 12 External links 13 Early life 14 French and Indian War 15 Between the wars 16 American Revolution 17 Presidency: 1789–1797 17.1 Domestic issues 17.2 Foreign affairs 17.3 Farewell Address 17.4 Speeches 17.4.1 Inaugural Addresses 17.4.2 State of the Union Address 17.5 Major acts as President 17.5.1 Legislation signed into law 17.5.2 Legislation vetoed 17.6 Administration and cabinet 17.7 Supreme Court appointments 17.8 States admitted to Union 18 Retirement and death 19 Legacy 19.1 Monuments and memorials 19.2 Washington and slavery 20 Religious beliefs 21 Interest in sport 22 Family 23 Myths and misconceptions 24 See also 25 References: biographies 26 Further reading 26.1 Primary sources 26.2 "Patriarch: George Washington and the New American Nation" 26.3 Scholarly studies 27 Notes 28 External links

[edit] Athletics

The Pulaski Academy Bruins have a strong tradition in athletic sporting teams including football (boys), basketball, cross country, track & field, baseball (boys), softball (girls), tennis, golf (boys), volleyball (girls), soccer, swimming, pep squad, pom-pom, bowling, break dancing, quiz bowl, and cheer leading.

[edit] Fine Arts

Pulaski Academy also has a very dedicated Fine Arts Department. The fields included in this category are Drama (Introduction to Drama, Drama, and Theater Repertoire), Choir (Harmony Boys/Girls, Concert Men/Women, PA Company, and PA Sounds), Art (Introduction to Art, Pre-AP Studio Art, AP Studio Art, and AP Art History), and Band (Beginning, Middle, and Upper School Bands).

[edit] Honor System

PA has an Honor System led by four core values. The motto for this system is respectively names "Honor Above All," and the four core values are incorporated into the classroom as well as in disiplinary matters.

[edit] Four Core Values

[edit] Respect

• Authority
• Community
• Others
• Self

[edit] Responsibility

• Accountability
• Commitment
• Perseverance

[edit] Integrity

• Courage to stand for right
• Fairness
• Honesty
• Trustworthiness

[edit] Excellence

• Academic conduct
• Arts
• Athletics
• Personal Conduct

[edit] Notable Alumni

• Amy Lee, the lead singer of Evanescence. The song Listen to the Rain, written by her, was sung at her Class of 2000 graduation ceremony. Her two sisters are currently attending PA.
• Stefan Loucks, the quarterback for the Bruins. He has signed on with Texas Tech and will be graduating in spring 2007.
• Broderick Greene, the star running back for the Bruins. He has signed on with USC and will be graduating in spring 2007.

[edit] External links

• Pulaski Academy
• http://www.privateschoolreview.com/

Title Make Way for Ducklings

Front cover illustration
Author	Robert McCloskey
Illustrator	Robert McCloskey
Cover artist	Robert McCloskey
Country	United States
Genre(s)	Children's picture book
Publisher	The Viking Press
Released	1941
Media type	Hardback
Pages	68
ISBN	ISBN 0-670-45149-5

Make Way for Ducklings is a children's picture book written and illustrated by Robert McCloskey. First published in 1941, the book tells the story of a pair of mallard ducks who decide to raise their family on an island in the lagoon in Boston Public Garden, a park in the center of Boston, Massachusetts, USA.

Make Way for Ducklings won the 1942 Caldecott Medal for McCloskey's illustrations, executed in charcoal then lithographed on zinc plates.^[1][2][3] As of 2003, the book had sold over two million copies.^[4] The book's popularity led to the construction of a statue in the Public Garden of the mother duck and her eight ducklings, which is a popular destination for children and adults alike.^[5] The book is also the official children's book of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.^[6]

The book has received some criticism for having a loose plot, as well as poor characterization.^[2] However, it has generally been well-received. Praise for the book is still high, over 60 years following its first publication, mainly for the enhancing illustrations and effective pacing.^[7] The book is extremely popular worldwide, and Novodevichy Park, Moscow, like the city of Boston, also has a set of statues based on the story.

[edit] Background

Robert McCloskey was born in Ohio but spent time in Boston while attending the Vesper George Art School starting in 1932. After failing to succeed as an artist in New York City, McCloskey published his first book, Lentil, in 1940. Make Way for Ducklings, published in 1941, was McCloskey's second book.^[8]

In his Caldecott Medal acceptance speech, McCloskey explained his motivation for the book. While at Vesper George, McCloskey spent time in the Public Garden feeding the ducks. After some time away, he returned to Boston to paint a mural and created a draft of the book after inspiration from May Massee. To better illustrate the story, McCloskey spent time at the American Museum of Natural History in New York, visited an ornithologist, and eventually brought home six ducklings to live in his studio as models.^[2]

[edit] Plot

The story begins as Mr. and Mrs. Mallard fly over various potential locations to start a family. Each time Mr. Mallard discovers a location, Mrs. Mallard finds something wrong with it. Tired from their search, the Mallards land at the Public Garden Lagoon to spend the night. In the morning, a swan boat passes by, which they mistake for a real bird. They have a second breakfast of peanuts thrown from the people on the boat. Mrs. Mallard suggests that they build their nest in the Public Garden. However, just as she says this, she is nearly run down by a passing bicyclist. The Mallards continue their search, flying over Boston landmarks such as Beacon Hill, the Massachusetts State House, and Louisburg Square. They finally decide on an island in the Charles River. From this island, the Mallards visit a policeman named Michael on the shore, who feeds them peanuts every day.

Shortly thereafter, the Mallards molt, which prevents them from flying for a short time, and Mrs. Mallard hatches eight ducklings named Jack, Kack, Lack, Mack, Nack, Ouack, Pack, and Quack. After the ducklings hatch, Mr. Mallard decides to take a trip up the river to see what the rest of it is like. Mr. and Mrs. Mallard agree to meet at the Public Garden in one week. In the meantime, Mrs. Mallard teaches the eight ducklings all they need to know about being ducks.

One week later, Mrs. Mallard leads the ducklings ashore and straight to the highway in hopes of crossing to reach the Garden, but she has trouble crossing as the cars will not yield to her. Michael, the policeman who fed peanuts to the Mallards, stops traffic for the family to cross. Michael calls police headquarters and instructs them to send a police car to stop traffic along the route for the ducks. The ducks cross the highway, Embankment Road, then proceed down Mount Vernon Street to Charles Street where they head south to the Garden. When the family must cross Beacon Street to enter the Garden, there are four policemen standing in the intersection stopping traffic to make way for the ducklings. Mr. Mallard is waiting in the Public Garden for the rest of the family. Finally, the family decides to stay in the Garden and lives happily ever after.^[1]

[edit] Critical reaction

The book, which received the 1942 Caldecott Medal for its illustrations, has continued to garner praise more than sixty years after its first publishing. When it was first released in 1941, Ellen Buell of The New York Times called the book "one of the merriest we have had in a long time", praising the understated comedic aspect of the procession down Beacon Street, as well as McCloskey's "fine large pictures" which simultaneously demonstrate "economy of line" and "wealth of detail".^[9]

[edit] Plot versus illustration

More recent critics have stated that the illustrations cause the strength of the plot to suffer. Critics note that the "loosely plotted" story gives no true explanation for why Mr. Mallard leaves the island in the Charles River or why the Mallards did not simply stay on the lagoon island in the first place and avoid the bicyclists on the shore. However, McCloskey has stated himself that he thinks of himself as an artist who writes children's books and not vice versa. Critics also find the characterization of the waterfowl lacking, that is, the Mallards represent "rather stereotypically concerned parents," often showing the same facial expressions and rarely showing expressiveness.^[2]

Critics believe children are attracted to the book because the drawings of Boston represent a duck's eye view of the city. Pictures are a true extension of the plot, and the story would lack without them. Most compelling is the individuality with which McCloskey imbues each duckling. Each of the individual ducklings are "bored, inquisitive, sleepy, or they are scratching, talking over their backs one to another, running to catch up with the line." Children identify with the ducklings because they behave as children do. The comforting message shows parents as caretakers, protectors, and teachers.^[2]

[edit] Use of page breaks

Other critics have positively commented on McCloskey's use of page breaks as a pacing technique. McCloskey's use of one-sentence pages forces the reader to quickly turn the page, enhancing the sense of motion, especially during the home search and when Mrs. Mallard teaches the ducklings their basic skills. McCloskey also employs this page break method to heighten the surprise of an event. When searching for a home, Mr. and Mrs. Mallard seem to have found one on page eleven.^[7]

"'Good,' said Mr. Mallard, delighted that at last Mrs. Mallard had found a place that suited her. But —" (p. 11)^[1]

Then, they encounter a sudden problem with the chosen location when Mrs. Mallard is nearly run over by a bicyclist on page thirteen.

"'Look out!' squawked Mrs. Mallard, all of a dither. 'You'll get run over!'" (p. 13)^[1]

The broken sentence structure forces a quick page change, enhancing the sense of surprise on this page.^[7]

[edit] Gender roles

Make Way for Ducklings was published in the 1940s, before the feminist movement generated greater awareness of gender role disparity. Critics have noted that the books of the time portray a male-dominated society, a trend which Make Way for Ducklings does not follow.^[10] Contrary to other books of the time, such as What Girls Can Be which stereotyped women as submissive, limited, and weak, McCloskey presented Mrs. Mallard as an "independent and nonsubmissive female character."^[11] When Mr. Mallard leaves on questionable purpose, Mrs. Mallard is charged with raising their ducklings alone. McCloskey portrays Mrs. Mallard as a capable woman who does not need the support of a male character. This strong portrayal has led some critics to label the book as "pre-feminist."^[12]

[edit] Sales

Make Way for Ducklings has been continuously in print since it was first published. As of 2003, the book had sold over two million copies.^[4] The story has also been published in paperback and audio book.^[13]

[edit] Cultural effects

The city of Boston, the setting of the book, has whole-heartedly embraced the story. In the Public Garden, where the Mallards eventually settled, a bronze statue has been erected of Mrs. Mallard and her eight ducklings. While the tallest statue stands only 38 inches (1 m) tall, the caravan of bronze ducks set in Boston cobblestone spans 35 feet (11 m) from front to back. The statue, installed October 4, 1987, was a tribute to Robert McCloskey "whose story ... has made the Boston Public Garden familiar to children throughout the world."^[5]

Since 1978, the city has hosted an annual Duckling Day parade each spring, in which children dressed as ducklings and their parents retrace the path taken by Mrs. Mallard and her ducklings to get from the Charles River to the Public Garden.^[14][15]

In 2000, schoolchildren from Canton, Massachusetts decided that the book was worthy of being the official children's book of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and went to their state legislature to get a bill passed declaring it so. However, legislators from Springfield blocked the legislation on the grounds that the official book should be by Springfield native Dr. Seuss. Legislators reached a compromise when they agreed to make Dr. Seuss the official children's author of the Commonwealth and Make Way for Ducklings the official children's book.^[16]

A statue similar to the one in the Boston Public Garden was erected in Novodevichy Park in Moscow as part of the START Treaty on July 30, 1991. The statue, which is 40 feet long (12 m), was presented by then United States First Lady Barbara Bush to Soviet First Lady Raisa Gorbachev as a gift to the children of the Soviet Union.^[17] Four of the ducks were stolen, one in 1991 and three in February of 2000. Thieves hoping to sell the ducks as scrap metal cut the statues off at the legs. The ducks were replaced in September 2000 at a rededication ceremony attended by former President of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev.^[18]

[edit] See also

• Duck crossing

[edit] References

[edit] External links

• Make Way For Ducklings at Penguin Publishing
• Make Way For Ducklings, Boston, the sculpture by Nancy Schön

Preceded by They Were Strong and Good	Caldecott Medal recipient 1942	Succeeded by The Little House
George Washington
1st President of the United States
In office April 30, 1789 – March 4, 1797
Preceded by	(none)
Succeeded by	John Adams
Born	February 22, 1732 Westmoreland County, Virginia
Died	December 14, 1799, age 67 Mount Vernon, Virginia
Spouse	Martha Dandridge Custis Washington
Religion	Anglican/Episcopal/Deist
Signature

George Washington (February 22, 1732 – December 14, 1799)^[19] led America's Continental Army to victory over Britain in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), and was later elected the first president of the United States under the U.S. Constitution. He served two four-year terms from 1789 to 1797, winning reelection in 1792. Because of his central and critical role in the founding of the United States, Washington is referred to as father of the nation. His devotion to republicanism and civic virtue made him an exemplary figure among early American politicians.

In his youth, Washington worked as a surveyor of rural lands and acquired what would become invaluable knowledge of the terrain around his native state of Virginia. Washington gained command experience during the French and Indian War (1754–1763). Due to this experience, his military bearing, his enormous charisma, his leadership of the patriot cause in Virginia, and his political base in the largest colony, the Second Continental Congress chose him, in 1775, as their commander-in-chief of the American army.

In 1776, he victoriously forced the British out of Boston. But, later that same year, was badly defeated, and nearly captured, when he lost New York City. However, in the bitter-cold dead of night, he revived the patriot cause, by crossing the Delaware river in New Jersey and defeating the surprised enemy units. As a result of his strategic oversight, Revolutionary forces captured the two main British combat armies, first at Saratoga in 1777 and then at Yorktown in 1781. He handled relations with the states and their militias, dealt with disputing generals and colonels, and worked with Congress to supply and recruit the Continental army. Negotiating with Congress, the colonial states, and French allies, he held together a tenuous army and fragile birthing nation, amid the constant threats of disintegration and failure. He was also the country's first spymaster^[20].

Following the end of the war in 1783, Washington emulated the Roman general Cincinnatus, and retired to his plantation on Mount Vernon, an exemplar of the republican ideal of citizen leadership who rejected power. Alarmed in the late 1780s at the many weaknesses of the new nation under the Articles of Confederation, he presided over the Constitutional Convention that drafted the much stronger United States Constitution in 1787.

In 1789, Washington became President of the United States and promptly established many of the customs and usages of the new government's executive department. He sought to create a great nation capable of surviving in a world torn asunder by war between Britain and France. His Proclamation of Neutrality of 1793 provided a basis for avoiding any involvement in foreign conflicts. He supported Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton's plans to build a strong central government by funding the national debt, implementing an effective tax system, and creating a national bank. When rebels in Pennsylvania defied Federal authority, he rode at the head of the army to authoritatively quell the Whiskey Rebellion. Washington avoided the temptation of war and began a decade of peace with Britain via the Jay Treaty in 1795; he used his immense prestige to get it ratified over intense opposition from the Jeffersonians. Although he never officially joined the Federalist Party, he supported its programs and was its inspirational leader. By refusing to pursue a third term, he made it the enduring norm that no U.S. President should seek more than two. Washington's Farewell Address was a primer on republican virtue and a stern warning against involvement in foreign wars.

As the symbol of republicanism in practice, Washington embodied American values and across the world was seen as the symbol of the new nation. Scholars perennially rank him among the three greatest U.S. Presidents. During Washington's funeral oration, Henry Lee said that of among all Americans, he was "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." (See Legacy, below.)

[edit] Early life

Main article: George Washington's early life

George Washington was born on February 22, 1732 (February 11, 1731, O.S.), the first son of Augustine Washington and his second wife, Mary Ball Washington, on the family estate (later known as Wakefield) in Westmoreland County, Virginia. Of a wealthy family with firm roots in the Old Country, Washington embarked upon a career as a planter and in 1748 was invited to go with the party that was to survey Baron Fairfax's lands west of the Blue Ridge. In 1749 he was appointed to his first public office, surveyor of newly created Culpeper County, and through his half-brother Lawrence Washington he became interested in the Ohio Company, which had as its object the exploitation of Western lands. After Lawrence's death (1752), George inherited part of his estate and took over some of Lawrence's duties as adjutant of the colony. As district adjutant, which made (December 1752) him Major Washington at the age of 20, he was charged with training the militia in the quarter assigned him. In Fredricksburg, also at the age of 20, Washington joined the Freemasons, a fraternal organization that became a lifelong influence.

[edit] French and Indian War

Main article: George Washington in the French and Indian War

At 22 years of age Washington fired some of the first shots of the French and Indian War, soon to become part of the worldwide Seven Years' War. The trouble began in 1753, when France began building a series of forts in the Ohio Country, a region also claimed by Virginia. Governor Dinwiddie sent young Major Washington to the Ohio Country to assess French military strength and intentions, and ask the French to leave. When the French refused, Washington's published report was widely read in both Virginia and Britain. In 1754, Dinwiddie sent Washington, now commissioned a Lieutenant Colonel in the newly created Virginia Regiment, to drive the French away. Along with his American Indian allies, Washington and his troops ambushed a French scouting party of some 30 men led by Joseph Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville, sent from Fort Duquesne to discover if Washington had in fact invaded French-claimed territory. Were this to be the case he was to send word back to the fort, then deliver a formal summons to Washington calling on him to withdraw. His small force was an embassy, resembling Washington’s to Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre the preceding year, and he neglected to post sentries around his encampment. At daybreak on the 28th, Washington with 40 men stole up on the French camp near present Jumonville, Pa. Some were still asleep, others preparing breakfast. Without warning, Washington gave the order to fire. The Canadians who escaped the volley scrambled for their weapons, but were swiftly overwhelmed. Jumonville, the French later claimed, was struck down while trying to proclaim his official summons. Ten of the Canadians were killed, one wounded, all but one of the rest taken prisoner. Washington and his men then retired, leaving the bodies of their victims for the wolves. Washington then built Fort Necessity, which soon proved inadequate, as he was soon compelled to surrender to a larger French and Indian force. The surrender terms that Washington signed included an admission that he had assassinated Jumonville. Because the French claimed that Jumonville's party had been on a diplomatic (rather than military) mission, the "Jumonville affair" became an international incident and helped to ignite a wider war. Washington was released by the French with his promise not to return to the Ohio Country for one year. Back in Virginia, Governor Dinwiddie broke up the Virginia Regiment into independent companies; Washington resigned from active military service rather than accept a demotion to captain.

In 1755, British General Edward Braddock headed a major effort to retake the Ohio Country. Washington eagerly volunteered to serve as one of Braddock's aides, although the British officers held the colonials in contempt.^[21] The expedition ended in disaster at the Battle of the Monongahela. Washington distinguished himself in the debacle—he had two horses shot out from under him, and four bullets pierced his coat—yet, he sustained no injuries and showed coolness under fire. While Washington's exact leadership role during the battle has been debated, biographer Joseph Ellis asserts that Washington rode back and forth across the battlefield, rallying the remnant of the British and Virginian forces to a retreat. In Virginia, Washington was acclaimed as a hero.

In fall 1755, Governor Dinwiddie appointed Washington commander in chief of all Virginia forces, with rank of colonel, with responsibility for defending 300 miles (480 km) of mountainous frontier with about 300 men. Washington supervised savage, frontier warfare that averaged two engagements a month. His letters show he was moved by the plight of the frontiersmen he was protecting. With too few troops and inadequate supplies, lacking sufficient authority with which to maintain complete discipline, and hampered by an antagonistic governor, he had a severe challenge. In 1758, he took part in the Forbes Expedition, which successfully drove the French away from Fort Duquesne.

Washington's goal at the outset of his military career had been to secure a commission as a British officer, which had more prestige than serving in the provincial military. However, the British officers had disdain for the amateurish, non-aristocratic Americans. Washington's commission never came; in 1758, Washington resigned from active military service and spent the next sixteen years as a Virginia planter and politician.^[22]

[edit] Between the wars

Main article: George Washington between the wars

On January 6, 1759, Washington married Martha Dandridge Custis, a widow. They had a good marriage, and together raised her two children, John Parke Custis and Martha Parke Custis, affectionately called "Jackie" and "Patsy". Later the Washingtons raised two of Mrs. Washington's grandchildren, Eleanor Parke Custis and George Washington Parke Custis. George and Martha never had any children together—his earlier bout with smallpox followed, possibly, by tuberculosis may have made him sterile. The newlywed couple moved to Mount Vernon, where he took up the life of a genteel planter and political figure.^[23]

Washington's marriage to a wealthy widow greatly increased his property holdings and social standing. He acquired one-third of the 18,000-acre (73 km²) Custis estate upon his marriage, and managed the remainder on behalf of Martha's children. He frequently purchased additional acreage in his own name, and was granted land in what is now West Virginia as a bounty for his service in the French and Indian War. By 1775, Washington had doubled the size of Mount Vernon to 6,500 acres (26 km²), with over 100 slaves. As a respected military hero and large landowner, he held local office and was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature, the House of Burgesses, beginning in 1758.^[24]

Washington first took a leading role in the growing colonial resistance in 1769, when he introduced a proposal drafted by his friend George Mason which called for Virginia to boycott imported English goods until the Townshend Acts were repealed. Parliament repealed the Acts in 1770. Washington regarded the passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774 as "an Invasion of our Rights and Privileges". In July 1774, he chaired the meeting at which the Fairfax Resolves were adopted, which called for, among other things, the convening of a Continental Congress. In August, he attended the First Virginia Convention, where he was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress.^[25]

[edit] American Revolution

Main article: George Washington in the American Revolution

After fighting broke out in April 1775, Washington appeared at the Second Continental Congress in military uniform, signaling that he was prepared for war. Washington had the prestige, the military experience, the charisma and military bearing, the reputation of being a strong patriot, and he was supported by the South, especially Virginia. There was no serious competition. Congress created the Continental Army on June 14; the next day on the nomination of John Adams of Massachusetts it selected Washington as commander-in-chief. Washington assumed command of the American forces in Massachusetts in July 1775, during the ongoing siege of Boston. Realising his army's desperate shortage of gunpowder, Washington asked for new sources. British arsenals were raided (including some in the West Indies) and some manufacturing was attempted; a barely adequate supply (about 2.5 million pounds) was obtained by the end of 1776, mostly from France. ^[26]

Washington reorganized the army during the long standoff, and forced the British to withdraw by putting artillery on Dorchester Heights overlooking the city. The British evacuated Boston and Washington moved his army to New York City.

As Bickham (2002) shows, Washington was widely admired in Britain, where the press was virtually unanimous in portraying him in a positive light. Although negative toward the patriots in the Continental Congress, British newspapers routinely praised Washington's personal character and qualities as a military commander. Moreover, both sides of the aisle in Parliament found the American general's courage, endurance, and attentiveness to the welfare of his troops worthy of approbation and examples of the virtues they and most other Britons found wanting in their own commanders. Washington's refusal to become involved in politics buttressed his reputation as a man fully committed to the military mission at hand and above the factional fray.

In August 1776, British General William Howe launched a massive naval and land campaign to capture New York designed to seize New York City and offer a negotiated settlement. Several defeats against Howe sent Washington scrambling out of New York and across New Jersey, leaving the future of the Continental Army in doubt. On the night of December 25, 1776, Washington staged a counterattack, leading the American forces across the Delaware River to capture nearly 1,000 Hessians in Trenton, New Jersey.

Washington was defeated at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. On September 26, Howe outmaneuvered Washington and marched into Philadelphia unopposed. Washington's army unsuccessfully attacked the British garrison at Germantown in early October. Meanwhile Burgoyne, out of reach from help from Howe, was trapped and forced to surrender his entire army at Saratoga. The victory caused France to enter the war as an open ally, turning the Revolution into a major world-wide war. Washington's loss of Philadelphia prompted some members of Congress to discuss removing Washington from command. This episode failed after Washington's supporters rallied behind him.^[27]

Washington's army encamped at Valley Forge in December 1777, where it stayed for the next six months. Over the winter, 2,500 men (out of 10,000) died from disease and exposure. The next spring, however, the army emerged from Valley Forge in good order, thanks in part to a full-scale training program supervised by Baron von Steuben, a veteran of the Prussian general staff. The British evacuated Philadelphia in 1778 and returned to New York City. Meanwhile, Washington remained with his army outside New York. He delievered the final blow in 1781, after a French naval victory allowed American and French forces to trap a British army in Virginia. The surrender at Yorktown on October 17, 1781 marked the end of fighting. The Treaty of Paris (1783) recognized the independence of the United States.

In March 1783, Washington used his influence to disperse a group of Army officers who had threatened to confront Congress regarding their back pay. Washington disbanded his army and, on November 2, gave an eloquent farewell address to his soldiers.^[28] A few days later, the British evacuated New York City, and Washington and the governor took possession of the city; at Fraunces Tavern in the city on December 4, he formally bade his officers farewell. On December 23, 1783, Washington resigned his commission as commander-in-chief to the Congress of the Confederation.

Washington's retirement to Mount Vernon was short-lived. He was persuaded to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in the summer of 1787, and he was unanimously elected president of the Convention. For the most part, he did not participate in the debates involved (though he did participate in voting for or against the various articles), but his prestige was great enough to maintain collegiality and to keep the delegates at their labors. The delegates designed the presidency with Washington in mind, and allowed him to define the office once elected. After the Convention, his support convinced many, including the Virginia legislature, to vote for ratification; all 13 states did ratify the new Constitution.

[edit] Presidency: 1789–1797

Main article: George Washington's Presidency

Washington was elected unanimously by the Electoral College in 1789, and he remains the only person ever to be elected president unanimously (a feat which he duplicated in the 1792 election). As runner-up with 34 votes (each elector cast two votes), John Adams became vice president. Washington took the oath of office as the first President on April 30, 1789 at Federal Hall in New York City.^[29]

The First U.S. Congress voted to pay Washington a salary of $25,000 a year—a large sum in 1789. Washington, already wealthy, declined the salary, since he valued his image as a selfless public servant. At the urging of Congress, however, he ultimately accepted the payment. A dangerous precedent could have been set otherwise, as the founding fathers wanted future presidents to come from a large pool of potential candidates - not just those citizens that could afford to do the work for free.

Washington attended carefully to the pomp and ceremony of office, making sure that the titles and trappings were suitably republican and never emulated European royal courts. To that end, he preferred the title "Mr. President" to the more majestic names suggested.

Washington proved an able administrator. An excellent delegator and judge of talent and character, he held regular cabinet meetings, which debated issues; he then made the final decision and moved on. In handling routine tasks, he was "systematic, orderly, energetic, solicitous of the opinion of others but decisive, intent upon general goals and the consistency of particular actions with them."^[30]

Washington only reluctantly agreed to serve a second term of office as president. He refused to run for a third, establishing the precedent of a maximum of two terms for a president.^[31]

[edit] Domestic issues

Washington was not a member of any political party, and hoped that they would not be formed. His closest advisors, however, became divided into two factions, setting the framework for political parties. Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton, who had bold plans to establish the national credit and build a financially powerful nation, formed the basis of the Federalist Party. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, founder of the Jeffersonian Republicans, strenuously opposed Hamilton's agenda, but Hamilton had Washington's ear, not Jefferson.

In 1791, Congress imposed an excise tax on distilled spirits, which led to protests in frontier districts, especially Pennsylvania. By 1794, after Washington ordered the protesters to appear in U.S. district court, the protests turned into full-scale riots known as the Whiskey Rebellion. The federal army was too small to be used, so Washington invoked the Militia Law of 1792 to summon the militias of Pennsylvania, Virginia and several other states. The governors sent the troops and Washington took command, marching into the rebellious districts. There was no fighting, but Washington's forceful action proved the new government could protect itself. It also was one of only two times that a sitting President would personally command the military in the field: the other was after President James Madison fled the burning White House in the War of 1812. These events marked the first time under the new constitution that the federal government used strong military force to exert authority over the states and citizens.

[edit] Foreign affairs

In 1793, the revolutionary government of France sent diplomat Edmond-Charles Genêt, called "Citizen Genêt," to America. Genêt issued letters of marque and reprisal to American ships so they could capture British merchant ships. He attempted to turn popular sentiment towards American involvement in the French war against Britain by creating a network of Democratic-Republican Societies in major cities. Washington rejected this interference in domestic affairs, demanded the French government recall Genêt, and denounced his societies.

To normalize trade relations with Britain, remove them from western forts, and resolve financial debts left over from the Revolution, Hamilton and Washington designed the Jay Treaty. It was negotiated by John Jay, and signed on November 19, 1794. The Jeffersonians supported France and strongly attacked the treaty. Washington and Hamilton, however, mobilized public opinion and won ratification by the Senate by emphasizing Washington's support. The British agreed to depart their forts around the Great Lakes, the Canadian-U.S. boundary was adjusted, numerous pre-Revolutionary debts were liquidated, and the British opened their West Indies colonies to the American trade. Most important, the treaty avoided war with Britain and instead brought a decade of prosperous trade with Britain. It angered the French and became a central issue in the political debates of the emerging First Party System.

[edit] Farewell Address

Washington's Farewell Address (issued as a public letter in 1796) was one of the most influential statements of American political values. ^[32] Drafted primarily by Washington himself, with help from Hamilton, it gives advice on the necessity and importance of national union, the value of the Constitution and the rule of law, the evils of political parties, and the proper virtues of a republican people. In the address, he called morality "a necessary spring of popular government." He suggests that "reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national morality can prevail in exclusion of religious principle." Washington thus makes the point that the value of religion is for the benefit of society as a whole. ^[33]

Washington warns against foreign influence in domestic affairs and American meddling in European affairs. He warns against bitter partisanship in domestic politics and called for men to move beyond partisanship and serve the common good. He called for an America wholly free of foreign attachments, as the United States must concentrate only on American interests. He counseled friendship and commerce with all nations, but warned against involvement in European wars and entering into long-term alliances. The address quickly set American values regarding religion and foreign affairs, and his advice was often repeated in political discourse well into the twentieth century; not until the 1949 formation of NATO would the United States again sign a treaty of alliance with a foreign nation. Washington strictures against political parties were ignored at the time and ever since.

[edit] Speeches

[edit] Inaugural Addresses

• First Inaugural Address, (April 30, 1789)
• Second Inaugural Address, (March 4, 1793)

[edit] State of the Union Address

• First State of the Union Address, (January 8, 1790)
• Second State of the Union Address, (December 8, 1790)
• Third State of the Union Address, (October 25, 1791)
• Fourth State of the Union Address, (November 6, 1792)
• Fifth State of the Union Address, (December 3, 1793)
• Sixth State of the Union Address, (November 19, 1794)
• Seventh State of the Union Address, (December 8, 1795)
• Eighth State of the Union Address, (December 7, 1796)

[edit] Major acts as President

• Organized the first United States Cabinet and the Executive Branch

[edit] Legislation signed into law

• Judiciary Act of 1789
• Indian Intercourse Acts, starting in 1790
• Naturalization Act of 1790
• Residence Act of 1790
• Bank Act of 1791
• Coinage Act of 1792 or Mint Act
• Fugitive Slave Act of 1793
• Naval Act of 1794

[edit] Legislation vetoed

Washington vetoed two laws while President:

• The Apportionment Bill, vetoed April 5, 1792, on constitutional grounds.^[34]
• A Bill to alter and amend an Act entitled, "An Act to ascertain and fix the military establishment of the United States", vetoed February 28, 1797, on the advice of Secretary of War James McHenry.^[35]

[edit] Administration and cabinet

OFFICE	NAME	TERM
President	George Washington	1789–1797
Vice President	John Adams	1789–1797
Secretary of State	Thomas Jefferson	1789–1793
	Edmund Randolph	1794–1795
	Timothy Pickering	1795–1797
Secretary of the Treasury	Alexander Hamilton	1789–1795
	Oliver Wolcott, Jr.	1795–1797
Secretary of War	Henry Knox	1789–1794
	Timothy Pickering	1795–1796
	James McHenry	1796–1797
Attorney General	Edmund Randolph	1789–1793
	William Bradford	1794–1795
	Charles Lee	1795–1797
Postmaster General	Samuel Osgood	1789–1791
	Timothy Pickering	1791–1795
	Joseph Habersham	1795–1797

[edit] Supreme Court appointments

As the first President, Washington appointed the entire first Supreme Court of the United States:

• John Jay - Chief Justice - 1789
• James Wilson - 1789
• John Rutledge - 1790
• William Cushing - 1790
• John Blair - 1790
• James Iredell - 1790
• Thomas Johnson - 1792
• William Paterson - 1793
• John Rutledge - Chief Justice, 1795 (an associate justice 1790-1795)
• Samuel Chase - 1796
• Oliver Ellsworth - Chief Justice - 1796

[edit] States admitted to Union

• North Carolina – November 21, 1789 by ratification of the Constitution
• Rhode Island – May 29, 1790 by ratification of the Constitution
• Vermont – May 4, 1791
• Kentucky – June 1, 1792
• Tennessee – June 1, 1796

[edit] Retirement and death

After retiring from the presidency in March 1797, Washington returned to Mount Vernon with a profound sense of relief. He devoted much time to farming and, in that year, constructed a 2,250 square foot (200 m²) distillery, which was one of the largest in the new republic. Two years later, he produced 11,000 gallons of whiskey worth $7,500.^[36]

In 1798, Washington was appointed Lieutenant General in the United States Army (then the highest possible rank) by President John Adams. Washington's appointment was to serve as a warning to France, with which war seemed imminent.

On December 12, 1799, Washington spent several hours inspecting his farms on horseback, in snow and later hail and freezing rain. He sat down to dine that evening without changing his wet clothes. The next morning, he awoke with a bad cold, fever and a throat infection called quinsy that turned into acute laryngitis and pneumonia. Washington died on the evening of December 14, 1799, at his home, while attended by Dr. James Craik, one of his closest friends, and Tobias Lear, Washington's personal secretary. Lear would record the account in his journal. From Lear's account, we receive Washington's last words: Tis well.

Modern doctors believe that Washington died from either epiglottitis or, since he was bled as part of the treatment, a combination of shock from the loss of five pints of blood, as well as asphyxia and dehydration. Washington's remains were buried at Mount Vernon. In order to protect their privacy, Martha Washington burned the correspondence between her husband and herself following his death. Only three letters between the couple have survived.

After Washington's death, Mount Vernon was inherited by his nephew, Bushrod Washington, a justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.

In 1861, Washington's remains were moved from Mount Vernon to Lexington, Virginia, as there was fear that Northern troops would desecrate them. They were returned at the end of the war.

Making up for lost time, and to maintain George Washington's proper position as the first Commanding General of the United States Army, he was appointed posthumously to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States by the congressional joint resolution s:Public Law 94-479 on January 19, 1976, approved by President Gerald R. Ford on October 11, 1976, and formalized in Department of the Army Special Order Number 31-3 of March 13, 1978, with an effective appointment date of July 4, 1776.

[edit] Legacy

Main article: George Washington's legacy

Further information: Cultural depictions of George Washington

Congressman Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee, a Revolutionary War comrade and father of the Civil War general Robert E. Lee, famously eulogized Washington as:

First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen, he was second to none in humble and enduring scenes of private life. Pious, just, humane, temperate, and sincere; uniform, dignified, and commanding; his example was as edifying to all around him as were the effects of that example lasting. . . . Correct throughout, vice shuddered in his presence and virtue always felt his fostering hand. The purity of his private character gave effulgence to his public virtues. . . . Such was the man for whom our nation mourns.

Lee's words set the standard by which Washington's overwhelming reputation was impressed upon the American memory. Washington set many precedents for the national government and the presidency in particular. His decision to relinquish the presidency after serving two terms in office would be formalized in the 22nd Amendment to the Constitution.

As early as 1778, Washington was lauded as the "Father of His Country"^[37]

He was upheld as a shining example in schoolbooks and lessons: as courageous and farsighted, holding the Continental Army together through eight hard years of war and numerous privations, sometimes by sheer force of will; and as restrained: at war's end taking affront at the notion he should be King; and after two terms as President, stepping aside.

Washington became the exemplar of republican virtue in America. More than any American he was extolled for his great personal integrity, and a deeply held sense of duty, honor and patriotism. He is seen more as a character model than war hero or founding father. One of Washington's greatest achievements, in terms of republican values, was refraining from taking more power than was due. He was conscientious of maintaining a good reputation by avoiding political intrigue. He rejected nepotism or cronyism. Jefferson observed, "The moderation and virtue of a single character probably prevented this Revolution from being closed, as most others have been, by a subversion of that liberty it was intended to establish."^[38]

[edit] Monuments and memorials

Today, Washington's face and image are often used as national symbols of the United States, along with the icons such as the flag and great seal. Perhaps the most pervasive commemoration of his legacy is the use of his image on the one-dollar bill and the quarter-dollar coin. Washington, together with Theodore Roosevelt, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln, is depicted in stone at the Mount Rushmore Memorial.

Many things have been named in honor of Washington. George Washington is the namesake of the nation's capital, Washington, DC, and the State of Washington. Washington is the only state to be named for a president (while Maryland, the Virginias, the Carolinas and Georgia are named in honor of British monarchy). The George Washington University and the Washington Monument, one of the most well-known American landmarks, were built in his honor. The George Washington Masonic National Memorial in Alexandria, Virginia was also built in his honor. It was however, constructed entirely with voluntary contributions from members of the Masonic Fraternity. [3]

[edit] Washington and slavery

For most of his life, Washington operated his plantations as a typical Virginia slave owner. In the 1760s, he dropped tobacco (which was prestigious but unprofitable) and shifted to wheat growing and diversified into milling flour, weaving cloth, and distilling brandy. By the time of his death, there were 317 slaves at Mount Vernon.

Before the American Revolution, Washington expressed no moral reservations about slavery, but, by 1778, he had stopped selling slaves without their consent because he did not want to break up slave families.

In 1778, while Washington was at war, he wrote to his manager at Mount Vernon that he wished to sell his slaves and "to get quit of negroes", since maintaining a large (and increasingly elderly) slave population was no longer economically efficient. Washington could not legally sell the "dower slaves", however, and because these slaves had long intermarried with his own slaves, he could not sell his slaves without breaking up families.^[39]

After the war, Washington often privately expressed a dislike of the institution of slavery. Despite these privately expressed misgivings, Washington never criticized slavery in public. In fact, as President, Washington brought nine household slaves to the Executive Mansion in Philadelphia. By Pennsylvania law, slaves who resided in the state became legally free after six months. Washington rotated his household slaves between Mount Vernon and Philadelphia so that they did not earn their freedom, a scheme he attempted to keep hidden from his slaves and the public and one which was, in fact, against the law.^[40]

Washington was the only prominent, slaveholding Founding Father to emancipate his slaves. He did not free his slaves in his lifetime, however, but instead included a provision in his will to free his slaves upon the death of his wife. It is important to understand that not all the slaves at his estate at Mt. Vernon were owned by him. His wife Martha owned a large number of slaves and Washington, himself did feel that he could free slaves that come to Mt. Vernon from her estate. His actions were influenced by his close relationship with the Marquis de La Fayette. Martha Washington would free slaves to which she had title late in her own life. He did not speak out publicly against slavery, argues historian Dorothy Twohig, because he did not wish to risk splitting apart the young republic over what was already a sensitive and divisive issue.^[41]

[edit] Religious beliefs

Main article: George Washington and religion

Washington was baptized as an infant into the Church of England.^[42][43] In 1765, when the Church of England was still the state religion,^[44] he served on the vestry (lay council) for his local church. Throughout his life, he spoke of the value of righteousness, and of seeking and offering thanks for the "blessings of Heaven". He was also a firm believer in the importance of religion for republican government.^{[citation needed]} He endorsed religion rhetorically and in his 1796 Farewell Address remarked on its importance in building moral character in American citizenry, believing morality undergirded all public order and successful popular government. In a letter to George Mason in 1785, he wrote that he was not among those alarmed by a bill "making people pay towards the support of that [religion] which they profess", but felt that it was "impolitic" to pass such a measure, and wished it had never been proposed, believing that it would disturb public tranquility.^[45]

His adopted daughter, Nelly Custis Lewis, stated: "I have heard her [Nelly's mother, Eleanor Calvert Custis,] say that General Washington always received the sacrament with my grandmother [Martha Washington] before the revolution". After the revolution, Washington frequently accompanied his wife to Christian church services; however, there is no record of his ever taking communion, and he would regularly leave services before communion — with the other non-communicants (as was the custom of the day), until he ceased attending at all on communion Sundays. Historians and biographers continue to debate the degree to which he can be counted as a Christian, and the degree to which he was a deist. It should also be noted that Washington was a Freemason. Even a few portraits exist of Washington in Masonic regalia.

Washington was an early supporter of religious toleration. In 1775, he ordered that his troops not show anti-Catholic sentiments by burning the pope in effigy on Guy Fawkes Night. When hiring workmen for Mount Vernon, he wrote to his agent, "If they be good workmen, they may be from Asia, Africa, or Europe; they may be Mohammedans (Muslims), Jews, or Christians of any sect, or they may be Atheists."^[46]

[edit] Interest in sport

Although the sport of cricket is not a common interest in modern America, it has been popular in the past.^[47] It is well understood from anecdotal evidence that George Washington was a strong supporter of cricket, participating at least one occasion in games of cricket with his troops at Valley Forge during the Revolution. ^[48] This is a sporting passion that other presidents have shared, such as Abraham Lincoln.

[edit] Family

• Though Washington had no children, he did have two successful nephews. Bushrod Washington became an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court and Burwell Bassett was a longtime congressman in both Virginia State and United States government.

[edit] Myths and misconceptions

• An early biographer, Parson Weems, was the source of the famous story about young Washington cutting down a cherry tree and confessing this to his father, in an 1800 book entitled The Life of George Washington; With Curious Anecdotes, Equally Honorable to Himself and Exemplary to His Young Countrymen. Some historians believe Weems invented or greatly embellished the dialogue, while others build Weems credibility by citing the facts that he did interview older people who knew young Washington. Weems did not, in fact, include the cherry tree story until the fifth edition of this work; he ascribed it to an "excellent lady," not otherwise identified. Even so, a careful reading of the account does not state that young George "cut down" the cherry tree, only that he hacked it so badly that he killed it. (and, also within the context of the story, he had just been given the hatchet as a gift and would be, in his father's eyes, the only likely suspect.)
• A popular belief is that Washington wore a wig, as was the fashion among some at the time. He did not wear a wig; he did, however, powder his hair,^[49] as represented in several portraits, including the well-known unfinished Gilbert Stuart depiction.^[50]
• An old legend about Washington was that he threw or skipped a silver dollar across the Potomac River. One would need a strong arm to throw an object across the Potomac, for it is about a mile wide at Mount Vernon. More likely he threw an object across the Rappahannock River, the river on which his childhood home stood.
• Washington's teeth were not made out of wood, as was once commonly believed. They were made out of teeth from different kinds of animals, specifically elk, hippopotamus, and human.^[51] One set of his false teeth weighed almost four ounces (110 g) and were made out of lead.
• A famous 1866 engraving depicts Washington praying at Valley Forge. In 1918, the Valley Forge Park Commission declined to erect a monument to the prayer because they could find no evidence that the event had occurred. In contrast, the Valley Forge Historical Society published an article in 1945 reviewing this issue and concludes that there is abundant evidence demonstrating that Washington was a prayerful and privately religious man although the second hand accounts of the tradition "lack ... the authentication with which the historian seeks to monument his recordings in all the solemnity of established fact." ^[52]

[edit] See also

• President of the United States
• American Revolution
• American Revolutionary War
• Cultural depictions of George Washington
• Town Destroyer, a nickname given Washington by the Iroquois

[edit] References: biographies

[edit] Further reading

[edit] Notes

[edit] External links

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• George Washington at findagrave
• George Washington Birthplace National Monument
• George Washington: A Life — first chapter of the biography by Willard Sterne Randall
• George Washington for Kids
• 39 Volume Collection of the Works of George Washington
• Library of Congress: Washington's Commission as Commander in Chief
• Biography of George Washington
• Fact File and Biography of George Washington
• Works by George Washington at Project Gutenberg
• George Washington historic sites in Virginia - Official Tourism Website
• George Washington and Christianity
• George Washington and Deism
• Scientific American Magazine (February 2006 Issue) Putting a Face on the First President
• George Washington's Mount Vernon Estate & Gardens
• President's House in Philadelphia with first person accounts. Washington's presidential years (1790-96) in Philadelphia when it was the national capital.
• Video biography of George Washington

Preceded by (none)	President of the United States April 30. 1789(a)–March 4, 1797	Succeeded by John Adams
(a) Washington's term as President is sometimes listed as starting on either March 4 or April 6. March 4 is the official start of the first presidential term. April 6 is the date on which Congress counted the electoral votes and certified a winner. April 30 is the date on which Washington took the oath of office.

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Persondata
NAME	Washington, George
ALTERNATIVE NAMES
SHORT DESCRIPTION	1st President of the United States, Commander in Chief of the Continental Army
DATE OF BIRTH	February 22, 1732
PLACE OF BIRTH	Colonial Beach, Virginia, United States of America
DATE OF DEATH	December 14, 1799
PLACE OF DEATH	Mount Vernon (plantation), Mount Vernon, Virginia, United States of America