Mehmed-paša Sokolović

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Born :	1506 Ravanci, Sokolovići, Bosnia Province1, Ottoman Empire
Died :	1579 Istanbul, Ottoman Empire

Mehmed-paša Sokolović or Mehmed Sokollu (Serbian Cyrillic Мехмед-паша Соколовић , Turkish: Sokollu Mehmet Paşa) (born 1506, Sokolovići¹ - died 1579, Istanbul) was an important 16th century Ottoman statesman of Serb origins. Born in a Orthodox Serb^[1] family in southeast Bosnia, Sokolović was taken away at an early age as part of the devshirmeh system of Ottoman collection of young boys in order to be raised to serve as janissaries or in the imperial administration. He rose through the ranks of the Ottoman imperial system, eventually holding positions as commander of the imperial guard (1543-1546), High Admiral of the Fleet (1546-1551), Governor-General of Rumelia (1551-1555), Third Vizier (1555-1561), Second Vizier (1561-1565) and as Grand Vizier (1565-1579) to three Sultans: Suleiman the Magnificent, Selim II, and Murad III.^[2] He was assassinated in 1579, ending a 15-year reign as the de facto ruler of the Ottoman Empire.^[2]

Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early years 1.2 Janissary education 1.3 Career 1.3.1 Vizier 1.3.1.1 Third Vizier 1.3.1.2 Second Vizier 1.3.1.3 Grand Vizier 2 Heritage and legacy 3 Notes 4 References 4.1 General references 5 External links

[edit] Biography

[edit] Early years

Little is known for certain about Mehmed's birth and early life. Turkish chroniclers and historians only took significant notice of him after he had attained great standing in the Ottoman hierarchy. The facts regarding his youth may further be obscured by popular myths from later ages, making it difficult for historians to separate them.^[1]

It is generally agreed that Mehmed was born into an Serb Orthodox family in the hamlet of Sokolovići, near modern-day Rudo,^[2] around 1506. Said to have come from a modest shepherd family,^[3] Mehmed-paša's surname presumably derives from his place of birth. Other sources allege that the Sokolović family was descended from feudal Bosnian nobility^{[citation needed]}. However, this was a common myth regarding the pre-eminent families of the time. Research into the roots of Ottoman Bosnia's aristocratic families seems to discredit this thesis.^[2]

Mehmed's birth name was probably Bajica,^[1][3], while his father was named Dimitrije.^[2] He had two brothers and a sister, as well as at least one uncle.^[2] However, details about his family and relations are disputed on two major counts. One is his relationship to Makarije Sokolović. Traditionally identified as his brother, today some historians consider him to have been either a nephew or distant relative.^[1][2] The second is the matter of Mehmed's uncle. By some accounts, his uncle was a monk at the Mileševa monastery who had his two nephews, Bajica and Makarije (taken to be brothers according to this view), educated there.^[1] Other sources suggest that his only uncle converted to Islam early.^[2]

In 1516, an Ottoman expedition gathering up Christian boys as part of the devshirmeh system reached Sokolovići. According to folklore, Bajica was either simply taken from his father's home or, due to a reputation as a gifted child, specifically requested for by the commanding Ješildže Mehmed Bey. The story further holds that his uncle unsuccessfully appealed to the authorities, even offering vast sums of gold for the child's return.^[1]

[edit] Janissary education

In Istanbul, the young conscript converted to Islam, as all boys in the system were required to do, and received the name Mehmed.

Mehmed's education was to be chosen next. The Chief Eunuch divided the young boys into two groups. Mehmed was assigned to the group that was sent to the Imperial Quarters. His education comprised three phases:

• In the first, he shared a room with his fellow companions, where they jointly studied reading, writing and Islam taught by high-skilled teachers.
• In the second, he learned Turkish, Arabic, Persian, and also Latin, as well as martial skills, manual labour and gymnastics. This phase lasted for four years.
• In the third phase, he had to repeat all of his former studies and began to learn administrative duties.

As proclaimed in Baghdad on 13 March 1535, Mehmed was sent to be one of the seven servents of the Imperial Treasurer Iskander Celebi. Iskander died very soon after, so Mehmed returned to the Imperial Court where men with his talents ad skills were needed. He spoke fluently Church Slavonic, Persian, Arabic, Venetian-Italian and Neo-Latin.

[edit] Career

Mehmed first became an Imperial Chamberlain and then the head of the Sultan's squires. In these positions he became very close to Sultan Suleyman and learned from him.

As a soldier, Mehmed excelled at the Battle of Mohács and the first Siege of Vienna. In 1546, the High Admiral of the fleet, Kapudan Pasha Heiradin Barbarossa died and Mehmed was appointed his successor. During his five years in this position, Mehmet built up its almost non-existent arsenal.

Mehmed became Beylerbey (Governor-General) of Rumelia in 1551, headquartered in Sophia. While he was visiting the area where he was born, his mother recognized him by the birthmark on his face and embraced her child for the first time again in more than thirty years.

A civil war was raging in Hungary, and the Habsburg Emperor laid claims to Transylvania which was controlled by the Ottomans. The Sultan ordered Mehmed to move immediately to Hungary. Mehmed Sokolović assembled an Army of 90,000 soldiers and 54 cannons and marched into Hungary. He also summoned the Pashas of Smederevo, Vidin and Nicopolis. When his forces reached Slankamen in Srem, a Transylvanian viceroy, Monk Đorđe Utješenović, begged Mehmed not to attack Transylvania, arguing that it was loyal to the Sultan. All proposals for negotiations were rejected by Mehmed, who led the Ottoman forces forward into Transylvania and soon captured Bečej, Bečkerek, Csanád, Linova, as well as 12 more cities. Đorđe Utješenović responded by raising a rebellion in Transylvania - mustering one soldier from every household. Mehmed had to fall back and once again laid siege to Temišvar on 14 October with the main part of his army and 50 cannons. Mehmed demanded the city's commander to surrender, but he replied with a recommendation for Mehmed's return to Rumelia. According to folklore, Mehmed then said:

Prije će, dakle, laki jelen u vazduhu pasti

I more gole ribe na obali ostaviti.

Mehmed besieged the city until 28 October, but could not seize it. He therefore fell back to Belgrade, where he initiated peace negotiations with Monk-Viceroy Đorđe Utješenović. Đorđe was assassinated on 17 December 1551 and all peace talks ended. This made Mehmed renew his military campaign in 1552, when he seized Temišvar, Hollakö, Bujak, Ságh, Gürmath, the whole of Banat and Szolnak. Mehmed's forces then joined with those of Ahmet Pasha advancing towards Eger. Mehmed's army assembled on the Hill of Egid, but could not take the city itself.

In 1553, despite the losses in Europe to the west, Sultan Suleyman declared war on Persia. He dispatched Mehmet Sokollu to spent the winter of 1553/1554 in Tokat to take charge of the war against Persia. In June 1554, Mehmed's army joined that of the Sultan in the field near Susehri.

[edit] Vizier

[edit] Third Vizier

Impressed by Mehmed, the Sultan made him the Third Vizier of the Empire in 1555. His position as Governor-General of Rumelia was given to a Herzegovinian Janissary aga, Pertev Pasha, Mehmed's companion while they had served under Iskander-çelebi.

Almost immediately Mehmed he had to quell a rebellion around Thessalonika. The rebellion was raised by Mustafa Beg, who pretended to be the Sultan's late son, Prince Mustafa. Mehmed Sokolović took 4,000 horsemen and 3,000 janissaries and quelled the rebellion. Mustafa Beg was hanged.

Mehmed's brother, Topuzli-Makarije, was an Iguman of the Serb Chilandar monastery on Athos. Makarije Sokolović paid a visit to his brother's palace in Istanbul in 1557. Mehmed discussed with his brother the possibilities of renewing the Serbian Orthodox Church. Later that same year, Mehmed Pasha issued an edict (Ferman) declaring the restoration of the Peć Patriarchate, with Makarije Sokolović as Patriarch Makarije I. The edict also guaranteed the rights and religious freedom of all inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire.

When the former Grand Vizier Ahmed Pasha was deposed and hanged, he was replaced by Rustem Pasha Opuković, who had numerous enemies. One of them was Lala Mustafa who instigated the Sultan's third son, Bayezid, then Viceroy of Karamania, to raise a rebellion against his brother Selim who was to inherit the Imperial throne. Mehmed Sokolović mustered an army and went to Konia, where he defeated Bayezid's forces decisively in May 1559. Bayezid fled to Persia. Mehmed remained in Asia and spent the winter negotiating with the Persian Shah regarding Bayezid's extradition. After long negotiations, the Shah extradited Bayezid and his four sons, who were subsequently executed.

[edit] Second Vizier

Grand Vizier Rustem Pasha died in 1561. He was succeeded by the Second Vizier, Semiz Ali Pasha of Prača. Mehmed in turn became Second Vizier, while Pertev Pasha became Third Vizier.

Mehmed married Sultan Suleyman's granddaughter – Prince Selim II's daughter, Ismihan -- on 17 August 1562. Mehmed spent the followering years in peace, governing and administrating the realm. Even his wife became jealous of his fame.

In 1564, Mehmed's nephew, Mustafa Beg Sokolović, became Viceroy of Bosnia.

[edit] Grand Vizier

In June 1565, Grand Vizier Semiz Ali died. Sultan Suleyman had much confidence Mehmed and promoted him to to this position.

At the end of 1565 and the beginning of 1566, tensions between the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II and Sultan Suleyman grew. Maximilian wanted the cities previously taken by Gazi Hassan Pasha Predojević restored to him. When negotiations failed Maximilian declared war. Grand Vizier Mehmet Sokollu immediately ordered his nephew, Mustafa Beg Sokolović of Bosnia, to advance against Maximilian. Mustafa managed to capture the cities of Krupa and Dvor na Uni. The Sultan immediately declared war against the Holy Roman Empire and Grand Vizier Mehmed began the preparations for the army's advance. Mehmed went ahread, preparing for the arribval of the Sultan who was leading the main part of the Ottoman forces. After 50 days, they arrived in Belgrade.

After passing through Zemun, one part of the army crossed Varadin and struck Egar, before proceeding towards Vienna. The Croatian-Hungarian nobleman Nikola Zrinni had defeated Sanjak Bey Tirhal Mohammed, executing him and his son, and capturing 17,000 ducats. This incurred the Sultan's wrath, and he dispatched Mehmet's forces to besiege Szigetvár/Siget. The Sultan remained in Harsang. Budim's commander, Arslan Pasha, lost the cities of Palota, Vesprim and Tata. The Sultan was furious and sent a platoon of 15 troopers to bring him Arslan Pasha's head, but Arlsan had already left his forces three days earlier and was on his way to the Sultan. The Sultan showed Mehmed a letter in which Arslan had insulted Mehmet. On 3 August, Arslan reported to Mehmed's tent with 15 heavily armed horsemen. Mehmed Sokolović criticized Arslan for his conduct, accused him of treason and stripped him of his post, giving it instead to the Bosnian Governor-General, Mustafa Beg Sokolović. The Sultan finally arrived with Mehmed's sons, Kurt Bey and Hassan Bey, at Pécs/Pečuj. Finally, the large Ottoman force laid siege to Siget. It numbered 90,000 soldiers and 300 cannons. Siget fell after a long siege, but both Nikola Zrinyi and Sultan Suleyman lost their lives in the battle.

Mehmed Pasha Sokolović had all witnesses to the Sultan's death executed. He announced that Suleyman was too sick to perform his duties and that he would be healing in Szigetvár/Siget, while Mehmed would be acting on his behalf. Mehmed awarded all those who were involved in the capture of Siget and increased the soldiers' wages. He sent a part of the army to capture Bobovac. The Tartars, unfortunately, spread the news of the Sultan's death, and Mustafa Bey Sokolović wrote to Prince Selim about his father's death. Selim marched immediately towards Srem. Upon his arrival in Vukovar, Mehmed Pasha informed him through a letter that it would be best if he went to Belgrade to greet his army for a more formal and effective take-over of the Empire. Selim returned to Belgrade, and Mehmed ordered the army to march towards Belgrade. 40 days after the Sultan's death, in October 1566, the army set out for Belgrade. At the fourth stop on the way to Belgrade, 48 days after Suleyman's death, Mehmed announced the Sultan's death ceremonially, during the traditional reading of the Koran. Mehmed had Suleyman's body enbalmed and ordered the army to proceed to meet the new Sultan in Belgrade. After three marches, the Army arrived to Mitrovica. Mehmed reminded Selim II to send gifts to the Viziers, Pashas and the army, but Selim's advisors convinced the new Sultan not to do so. Mehmed Pasha went to Belgrade and swore allegiance to Selim II as his Sultan, and Selim confirmed him as his Grand Vizier.

Mehmed Pasha had expected a mutiny among the military, and so he immediately had Suleyman's body sent to Istanbul to restore order amongst the janissaries and other officials who now demanded more rewards as compensations for their past efforts. While still in Belgrade, Sultan Selim II called a council, as even some of his closest officials were openly mocking him. Mehmed assured him that he would manage everything effectively, and immediately dispatched gifts to the military ranks, rewarding them handsomly and re-assuring their loyalty.

On the 5th day of their stay in Belgrade, the Sultan, Mehmed and the army departed for Istanbul. Before they managed to return to the Empire's capital, a mutiny broke out and the road to the city was blocked. Mehmed Pasha and Ahmed Pasha had to bribe their way into the city. Order was restored after Mehmed convinced the Sultan to promise to send handsome gifts and higher wages to the janissaries. The next morning, each janissary was given standard 40 ducats pay and additional 20 as a gift. Soon, other branches of the military, spahies and mercaneries, demanded higher wages as well. Mehmed arrested and replaced their agas at once, finally stopping all dissent.

Two years after Selim's accession, on 17 February 1568, Mehmed Pasha succeeded in concluding at Constantinople a peace treaty with Emperor Maximilian II, whereby the Emperor agreed to pay an annual "present" of 30,000 ducats.

Mehmed Pasha had little success against Russia, and the first encounter between the Ottoman Empire and her future northern rival gave presage of the disaster to come. A plan had been devised at Istanbul for connecting the Volga and Don by a canal, and in the summer of 1569 a large force of janissaries and cavalry was sent to lay siege to Astrakhan and begin the canal works, while an Ottoman fleet besieged Azov. However, a sortie of the garrison of Astrakhan drove back the besiegers. A Russian army of 15,000 men attacked and scattered the workmen and the Tatar force sent for their protection, and the Ottoman fleet was destroyed by a storm. Early in 1570 the ambassadors of Ivan the Terrible concluded at Istanbul a treaty which restored friendly relations between the Sultan and the Tsar.

Selim II was a very weak ruler, and Grand Vizier Mehmed Pasha Sokollu held the real power in the administration, thanks to the reforms of Selim's predecessor, Suleyman the Magnificent. Although the government was weakening, Mehmed Pasha managed to expand the borders of the Ottoman Empire greatly. In 1570 he dispatched Sinan Pasha to conquer Arabia. Sinan Pasha solemnly declared the reign of Sultan Selim II in Mecca upon finishing his military campaign in Hejaz and Yemen.

In 1571-1572, on the order Mehmed's wife Ismihanthe, the famous architect Sinan built the Sokollu Mosque -- a small, but delightful monument by the old Roman hippodrome. [1]. (photos)

The main example of naval expansion during the reign of Mehmed Pasha as Grand Vizier is the conquest of Cyprus in 1571 from Venetia. The administreation of Cyprus was given to Mehmed's old friend, the Arab Ahmed Pasha. The invasion of Cyprus led to the formation of a so-called Holy League, comprising the Pope, Spain with Naples and Sicily, the Republic of Venice, Genoa, Tuscany, and the Maltese Knights. On 7 October 1571, the coalition's fleet under the command of Don Juan de Austria decisively defeated the Ottoman fleet under Ali Pasha in the Battle of Lepanto.

Mehmed immediately ensured that Piale Pasha and Kilic Ali Pasha, the new Grand Admiral, were provided with all the necessary means and resources to rebuild the Empire's shattered fleet. By July 1572 the Ottoman fleet already numbered 250 fully-equipped warships and posed a renewed threat to the Christian powers in the Mediterranean. In 1573, Venice signed a new peace treaty with Mehmed Pasha, thereby bringing the Holy League to an end. He also extended for eight more years the peace treaty with the Holy Roman Empire and Hapsburg Austria and maintained good relations with France, Poland and Russia. He was preparing for a fresh attack on Venice, when the Sultan's death on 12 December 1574 cut short his plans.

Mehmed Pasha's wealth reached its peak around 1573. The worth of his personal property (cash, goods, accounts, objects) amounted to 18,000,000 ducats. Mehmed received the standard Grand Vizier's wage of 20 ducats every day. His wealth increased greatly through gifts and taxes of Ottoman officials: anyone who became a Vizier had to pay Mehmed Pasha 50,000-60,000 ducats, and every Governor-General had to pay 15,000-20,000 or even sometimes 30,000-40,000 ducats upon ascending to office. Pasha Mohammed of Cairo alone dispatched 100,000 ducats to the Grand Vizier every year.

On 30 August 1574, Grand Vizier Mehmed Pasha Sokollu installed his nephew Antonije Sokolović, then the Metropolitan of Hum, as the new Orthodox Christian Archbishop of Ochryd. On 23 October the same year, upon Peć Patriarch Makarije's death, Antonije became the new Serbian Orthodox Christian Patriarch of Peć. Antonije died soon, in 1575, and was replaced by yet another one of Mehmed's nephews, Gerasim Sokolović.

When Sultan Selim II died, Mehmed Pasha again kept this secret until the Selim's oldest son Murad arrived from Magnesium. Mehmed Pasha bowed to the new Sultan, Murad III, and remained Grand Vizier. He now had to share his power, however, with the Sultan's mother, a Venetian noblewoman from the House of Baffo. Murad III gradually soured on Mehmed's overwhelming power within the Empire, and so Mehmed influence began to decline rapidly.

Mehmed Pasha was involved in the Polish Crown's succession disputes in 1576 and 1577, but this did not reach greater measures.

Mehmed Pasha Sokolović signed numerous treaties of friendship with Venice], Florence, Spain, England and Switzerland. He also managed to force a number of European states to pay tribute or fees to him. Austria paid 9,000 ducats; Transylvania 3,000; Wallachia 7,000; Moldavia 3,000; and eventually even Venice had to pay him 4,000 ducats annually. This altogether gave him an annual income of 31,000 ducats in gold.

Sultan Murad began to limit Mehmed Sokolovic's powers by slowly removing his allies from high offices. Mehmed was known to be opposed to the war with Iran which started in 1578. The state secretary Feridun, Mehmed Pasha's veteran from the assault on Siget, was sent to Belgrade, away from Istanbul. Mehmed's faithful Arab friend, the Governor-General of Cyprus, was lynched by mutinous soldiers. Mehmed's greatest rivals, Hamid Effendi and Piyale Pasha arranged the execution of the Grand Vizier's protector, Michael Cantakuzines. On 10 October 1578, Mehmed Pasha's nephew, Governor-General of Budim, Mustafa Bey Sokolović, was assassinated. On the anniversary of this day, on 10 October 1579, Mehmed Pasha had his servant Hassan Bey read to him about the Battle of Kossovo.

The next day, on 11 October, a mentally unstable dervish demanded to see the Grand Vizier. Mehmed Pasha allowed the dervish to enter his quarters, only to have the dervish take out a knife from his dress and stab the Grand Vizier. After three hours, Mehmed Pasha Sokollu died. The government was informed of his death by the Venetian governor the next morning, on 12 October.

Compared to other Ottoman administrators, Mehmed was calm and pacifist in external affairs. He preferred strategic moves to brutal ones. He conquered only strategic points like Cyprus and Rhodes. He started grand works on the Suez Canal and Volga-Don Canal. After his death, the religious freedom which he gave to the inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire was re-guaranteed.

[edit] Heritage and legacy

Mehmed-pasha is remembered among South Slavic peoples for his architectural endowments in the area. He renewed the Serbian Orthodox Church in the Peć Patriarchate during his tenure as third vizier and member of the imperial council in 1557 and instantiated his brother Makarije Sokolović, as a Patriarch of Serbia.

His most renowned endowment is an eleven-arched bridge in his home town Višegrad. Building and history of the Višegrad bridge is the topic of the well-known book by Ivo Andrić - The Bridge on the Drina, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize for literary achievements. His life also interested Meša Selimović. There were numerous Serbian legends on the bridge's construction. According to one, Mehmed-pasha built the bridge in his son's name. Another is present through Ivo Andrić's "Bridge on the Drina". It tells the tale of Rade the Architect who built the bridge.

In his native village of Sokolovići he has built a mosque, meqteb, musafirhana and plumbing; today, only the plumbing remains. His foundations are spread over Edirne, Halep, Medina, Bečkerek, Belgrade and alongside Bosnia, where he is especially remembered for his bridges. Mecca and Istanbul contained numerous mosques alone. Apart from the Višegrad bridge, Arslanagić bridge in Trebinje, Vizier's bridge in Podgorica, the bridge on Žepa and Kozja ćuprija in Sarajevo are attributed to his name. Between Višegrad and Sarajevo, on Glasinac, he built a Road of four paces and a castle. Of the castle, only a drinking-fountain remained – the Mehmed Sokolović's han.

Every summer in the palace in Istanbul, Mehmed-pasha prepared the choire's performations.

Mehmed-pasha's life became the subject of numerous Serbian and Islamic legends, poems and tales.

Preceded by '	Commander of the Imperial Squires 1543–1546	Succeeded by '
Preceded by Heyradine Barbarossa	High Admiral of the Fleet 1546–1551	Succeeded by '
Preceded by '	Beglerbey (Governor-General) of Rumelia 1551–1555	Succeeded by Pertev Pasha
Preceded by '	Third Vizier 1555–1561	Succeeded by '
Preceded by Semiz Ali Pasha	Second Vizier 1561–1565	Succeeded by Pertev Pasha
Preceded by Semiz Ali Pasha	Grand Vizier 1565–1579	Succeeded by '

[edit] Notes

1. ^  Some sources alternatively claim he was born in the hamlet of Ravanci near Sokolovići instead.

[edit] References

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Kočan, Ismet (Dec. 21, 2005). Mit i stvarnost - Mehmed-paša Sokolović. Večernje Novosti Online.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Imamović, Mustafa (1996). Historija Bošnjaka. Sarajevo: BZK Preporod. ISBN 9958-815-00-1
3. ^ ^{a b} Samarčić, Radovan (2004). Sokollu Mehmet Paşa (3rd edition). Istanbul: Aralik. ISBN 975882362-0

4. Знаменити Срби Мусломани (pdf) - Famous Serbs Muslims by Milenko. M. Vukićević, 1906, Belgrade, Davidović new Printing Press

[edit] General references

• This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.

[edit] External links

• Bosniak Mehmed Pasha Sokolovic - Article by Prof. Muhamed Filipovic (historian) examining history of Bosniak hero Mehmed-pasa Sokolovic
• "Myth and Reality – Mehmed Pasha Sokolović", Ismet Kočan, feuilleton in Večernje Novosti (in Serbian).
• Photos of Sokollu Mehmet Pasa Mosque