Medieval university

The first European medieval institutions generally considered to be universities were established in Italy, France, and England in the late 11th and the 12th centuries for the study of arts, law, medicine, and theology. These universities evolved from much older schools and monasteries, and it is difficult to define the date at which they became true universities, although the lists of studia generalia for higher education in Europe held by the Vatican are a useful guide. A different case is the university of Constantinople, which was founded in the 9th century as a secular institute of higher learning, to support the state administration.

[edit] Origins

Representation of a university class, (1350s).

With the increasing professionalisation of society during the 12th and 13th centuries, a similar demand grew for professional clergy. Before the 12th century, the intellectual life of Europe had been relegated to monasteries, which were mostly concerned with the study of the liturgy and prayer; very few monasteries could boast true intellectuals. Following the Gregorian Reform's emphasis on canon law and the study of the sacraments, bishops formed cathedral schools to train the clergy in Canon law, but also in the more secular aspects of church administration, including logic and disputation for use in preaching and theological discussion, and accounting to more effectively control finances.

Learning became essential to advancing in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and teachers also gained prestige. However, demand quickly outstripped the capacity of cathedral schools, each of which was essentially run by one teacher. In addition, tensions rose between the students of cathedral schools and burghers in smaller towns. So, cathedral schools migrated to large cities, like Paris and Bologna.

The predecessor of the modern university found its roots in Paris, especially under the guidance of Peter Abelard, who wrote Sic et Non ("Yes and No"), which collected texts for university study. Dissatisfied with tensions between burghers and students and the censorship of leading intellectuals by the Church, Abelard and others formed the Universitas, modelled on the mediaeval guild, a large-scale, self-regulating, permanent institution of higher education.

By the 13th century, almost half of the highest offices in the Church were occupied by degreed masters (abbots, archbishops, cardinals), and over one-third of the second-highest offices were occupied by masters. In addition, some of the greatest theologians of the High Middle Ages, Thomas Aquinas and Robert Grosseteste, were products of the mediaeval university.

The development of the mediaeval university coincided with the widespread reintroduction of Aristotle from Byzantine and Arab scholars and the decline in popularity of Platonism and Neoplatonism in favour of Aristotelian thought.

[edit] Characteristics

Class in a mediaeval university, illuminated manuscript from the 13th century.

Initially medieval universities did not have a campus. Classes were taught wherever space was available such as churches and homes, a university was not a physical space but a collection of individuals banded together as a universitas (the corporation). Soon, however, some universities (such as Cambridge) began to buy or rent rooms specifically for the purposes of teaching.

Universities were generally structured along three types, depending on who paid the teachers. The first type was in Bologna, where students hired and paid for the teachers. The second type was in Paris, where teachers were paid by the church. Oxford and Cambridge were predominantly supported by the crown and the state, a fact which helped them survive the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1538 and the subsequent removal of all the principal Catholic institutions in England. These structural differences created other characteristics. At the Bologna university the students ran everything -- a fact that often put teachers under great pressure and disadvantage. In Paris, teachers ran the school; thus Paris became the premiere spot for teachers from all over Europe. In Paris the main subject matter was theology. In Bologna, where students chose more secular studies, the main subject was law.

University studies took six years for a Bachelor degree and up to twelve additional years for a master's degree and doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, and rhetoric. The primary emphasis was on logic.

Once a Bachelor of Arts had been obtained, the student would choose one of three faculties – law, medicine, or theology – in which to pursue the master's degree and doctorate degree. Theology was the most prestigious area of study, and the most difficult.

Courses were offered according to books, not by subject or theme. For example a course might be on a book by Aristotle, or a book from the Bible. Courses were not elective: the course offerings were set, and everyone had to take the same courses. There were, however, occasional choices as to which teacher to use.

Students entered the University at fourteen to fifteen years of age. Classes usually started at 05:00 or 06:00. Students were afforded the legal protection of the clergy. In this way no one was allowed to physically harm them; they could only be tried for crimes in a church court, and were thus immune from any corporal punishment. This gave students free rein in urban environments to break secular laws with impunity, a fact which produced many abuses: theft, rape and murder were not uncommon among students who did not face serious consequences. This led to uneasy tensions with secular authorities. Students would sometimes "strike" by leaving a city and not returning for years. This happened at the University of Paris strike of 1229 after a riot (started by the students) left a number of students dead; the University went on strike and they did not return for two years. As the students had the legal status of clerics which, according to the Canon Law, could not be held by women, women were not admitted into universities.

A popular textbook for university study was called the Sentences (Quattuor libri sententiarum) of Peter Lombard; theology students and masters were required to write extensive commentaries on this text as part of their curriculum. Much of mediaeval thought in philosophy and theology can be found in scholastic textual commentary because scholasticism was such a popular method of teaching.

Most universities of international excellence in Europe were registered by the Holy Roman Empire as a Studium Generale. Members of these institutions were encouraged to disseminate their knowledge across Europe, often giving lecture courses at a different Studium Generale.

[edit] List of medieval universities

Map of Mediaeval Universities

List of mediaeval universities (founded before 1600), in order of foundation. Note that many of these institutions were schools prior to the university foundation date.

[edit] Pre-thirteenth century

University of Constantinople, Byzantine Empire – teaching from 8th Century ^[1]
University of Bologna, Italy – teaching from 10th Century recognised as University 1088
University of Paris, France – recognised as University 1150
University of Oxford, England – teaching from 1096 recognised as University 1167
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy – recognised as University 1175
Bosnian Church University, Visoko, Bosnia – recognised as University 1175 - disbanded 1463

[edit] Thirteenth century

University of Vicenza, Italy – recognised as University 1204
University of Cambridge, England – teaching from 12th Century, recognised as University 1209
University of Palencia, Spain – recognised as University 1212
University of Arezzo, Italy – recognised as University 1215
University of Salamanca, Spain – recognised as University 1218
University of Padua, Italy – recognised as University 1222
University of Naples Federico II, Italy – recognised as University 1224 by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor
University of Toulouse, France – recognised as University 1229
University of Siena, Italy – recognised as University 1240
University of Valencia, Spain – recognised as University 1245
University of Piacenza, Italy – recognised as University 1248
University of Valladolid, Spain – recognised as University 1250
University of Seville, Spain – recognised as University 1254
Sorbonne, France (at the University of Paris) – recognised as University 1257
University of Northampton, England – recognised as University 1261 – disbanded 1264
University of Montpellier, France – recognised as University 1289
University of Coimbra, Portugal – recognised as University 1290 (in Lisbon)
University of Macerata, Italy – recognised as University 1290
University of Lisbon, Portugal – recognised as University 1290
University of Lérida – recognised as University 1300

[edit] Fourteenth century

University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy – recognised as University 1303
University of Avignon, France – recognised as University 1303
University of Orléans, France – recognised as University 1306
University of Perugia, Italy – recognised as University 1308
University of Coimbra, Portugal – recognised as University 1308
University of Treviso, Italy – recognised as University 1318
University of Cahors – recognised as University 1332
University of Angers, France – recognised as University 1337
University of Pisa, Italy – recognised as University 1338
University of Grenoble – recognised as University 1339
Charles University of Prague, Czech Republic – recognised as University 1348
University of Florence, Italy – recognised as University 1349
University of Perpignan – recognised as University 1350
Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland – recognised as University 1364
University of Vienna, Austria – recognised as University 1365
University of Pécs, Hungary – recognised as University 1367
University of Heidelberg, Germany – recognised as University 1386
University of Cologne, Germany – recognised as University 1388
University of Ferrara, Italy – recognised as University 1391 by papal bull
University of Erfurt, Germany – recognised as University 1392
University of Zadar, Croatia – recognised as University 1396
University of Fermo, Italy – recognised as University 1398 by papal bull

[edit] Fifteenth century

University of Würzburg, Germany – recognised as University 1402 by papal bull
University of Leipzig, Germany – recognised as University 1409
University of St Andrews, Scotland – recognised as University 1413 by papal bull
University of Rostock, Germany – recognised as University 1419 by papal bull
University of Leuven, Belgium – recognised as University 1425
University of Barcelona, Spain – recognised as University 1450
University of Glasgow, Scotland – recognised as University 1451 by papal bull
University of Greifswald, Germany – recognised as University 1456
University of Basel, Switzerland – recognised as University 1460
University of Bratislava (Universitas Istropolitana), Slovakia – recognised as University 1465
University of Ingolstadt, Germany – recognised as University 1472
University of Tubingen (Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen), Germany – recognised as University 1476
University of Uppsala, Sweden – recognised as University 1477
University of Copenhagen, Denmark – recognised as University 1479
University of Aberdeen, Scotland – recognised as University 1494 (later merger with Marischal College in 1860, itself founded 1593)
University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain – recognised as University 1495
University of Alcalà de Henares, Spain – recognised as University 1499

[edit] Sixteenth century

University of Wittenberg, Germany – recognised as University 1502
University of Seville, Spain – recognised as University 1505 by papal bull - 1551 by city council
Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic – recognised as University 1538
National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico – recognised as University 1551
National University of San Marcos, Peru – recognised as University 1551
University of Évora, Portugal – recognised as University 1559
Université de Genève, Switzerland – recognised as University 1559
University of Leiden, Netherlands – recognised as University 1575
University of Vilnius, Lithuania -- recognised as University 1579
University of Zaragoza, Spain – Teaching started at School of Zaragoza in Century VII, recognised as University 1583 -
University of Edinburgh, Scotland – recognised as University 1583
University of Dublin, Ireland – recognised as University 1592

[edit] By region

[edit] British Isles

University of Oxford, England – teaching from 1096 recognised as University 1167
University of Cambridge, England – teaching from 12th Century, recognised as University 1209
University of Northampton, England – recognised as University 1261 – disbanded 1264
University of St Andrews, Scotland – recognised as University 1413 by papal bull
University of Glasgow, Scotland – recognised as University 1451 by papal bull
University of Aberdeen, Scotland – recognised as University 1494 (later merger with Marischal College in 1860, itself founded 1593)
University of Edinburgh, Scotland – recognised as University 1583
University of Dublin, Ireland – recognised as University 1592

[edit] France

University of Paris, France – recognised as University 1150
University of Toulouse, France – recognised as University 1229
Sorbonne, France (at the University of Paris) – recognised as University 1257
University of Montpellier, France – recognised as University 1289
University of Avignon, France – recognised as University 1303
University of Orléans, France – recognised as University 1306
University of Cahors – recognised as University 1332
University of Angers, France – recognised as University 1337
University of Grenoble – recognised as University 1339
University of Perpignan – recognised as University 1350

[edit] Spain and Portugal

University of Palencia, Spain – recognised as University 1212
University of Salamanca, Spain – recognised as University 1218
University of Valencia, Spain – recognised as University 1245
University of Valladolid, Spain – recognised as University 1250
University of Seville, Spain – recognised as University 1254
University of Coimbra, Portugal – recognised as University 1290 (in Lisbon, moved to Coimbra 1308)
University of Lérida – recognised as University 1300
University of Barcelona, Spain – recognised as University 1450
University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain – recognised as University 1495
University of Alcalà de Henares, Spain – recognised as University 1499
University of Seville, Spain – recognised as University 1505 by papal bull - 1551 by city council
University of Évora, Portugal – recognised as University 1559
University of Zaragoza, Spain – Teaching started at School of Zaragoza in Century VII, recognised as University 1583 -

[edit] Scandinavia

University of Uppsala, Sweden – recognised as University 1477
University of Copenhagen, Denmark – recognised as University 1479

[edit] Central Europe

Charles University of Prague, Czech Republic – recognised as University 1348
University of Vienna, Austria – recognised as University 1365
University of Heidelberg, Germany – recognised as University 1386
University of Cologne, Germany – recognised as University 1388
University of Erfurt, Germany – recognised as University 1392
University of Würzburg, Germany – recognised as University 1402 by papal bull
University of Leipzig, Germany – recognised as University 1409
University of Rostock, Germany – recognised as University 1419 by papal bull
University of Leuven, Belgium – recognised as University 1425
University of Greifswald, Germany – recognised as University 1456
University of Basel, Switzerland – recognised as University 1460
University of Ingolstadt, Germany – recognised as University 1472
University of Tubingen (Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen), Germany – recognised as University 1476
University of Wittenberg, Germany – recognised as University 1502
Université de Genève, Switzerland – recognised as University 1559
University of Leiden, Netherlands – recognised as University 1575

[edit] Italy

University of Bologna, Italy – teaching from 10th Century recognised as University 1088
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy – recognised as University 1175
University of Vicenza, Italy – recognised as University 1204
University of Arezzo, Italy – recognised as University 1215
University of Padua, Italy – recognised as University 1222
University of Naples Federico II, Italy – recognised as University 1224 by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor
University of Siena, Italy – recognised as University 1240
University of Piacenza, Italy – recognised as University 1248
University of Macerata, Italy – recognised as University 1290
University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy – recognised as University 1303
University of Perugia, Italy – recognised as University 1308
University of Treviso, Italy – recognised as University 1318
University of Pisa, Italy – recognised as University 1338
University of Florence, Italy – recognised as University 1349
University of Ferrara, Italy – recognised as University 1391 by papal bull
University of Fermo, Italy – recognised as University 1398 by papal bull

[edit] Eastern Europe

University of Constantinople, Byzantine Empire – teaching from 8th Century
Bosnian Church University, Visoko, Bosnia – recognised as University 1175 - disbanded 1463
Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland – recognised as University 1364
University of Pécs, Hungary – recognised as University 1367
University of Zadar, Croatia – recognised as University 1396
University of Bratislava (Universitas Istropolitana), Slovakia – recognised as University 1465
University of Vilnius, Lithuania -- recognised as University 1579

[edit] Americas

Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic – recognised as University 1538
National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico – recognised as University 1551
National University of San Marcos, Peru – recognised as University 1551

[edit] Notes

^ 1. There is some uncertainty as to which medieval university ought to be considered the oldest, since different criteria for the existence of a “university” yield different answers. The distinction is generally given to either Bologna or Paris—- Bologna as the first to have a corporate body (the “nations” of foreign law students, established at the end of the twelfth century), Paris as the first with an association of students and teachers of all the disciplines (1208). See the reference section for further information.

[edit] References

Cobban, Alan B. English University Life in the Middle Ages Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8142-0826-6
Ferruolo, Stephen The Origins of the University: The Schools of Paris and their Critics, 1100-1215 Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-8047-1266-2
Haskins, Charles Homer. The Rise of Universities. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1972. ISBN 0-87968-379-1
Rashdall, Hastings, rev. by F. M. Powicke, and A. B. Emden. The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, 3 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987. ISBN 0-19-821431-6
Rait, Robert S. Life in the Medieval University. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1931. ISBN 0-527-73650-3
Seybolt, Robert Francis, trans. The Manuale Scholarium: An Original Account of Life in the Mediaeval University. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1921.
Thorndike, Lynn, trans. and ed. University Records and Life in the Middle Ages New York: Columbia University Press, 1975. ISBN 0-393-09216-X

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

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Categories: Middle Ages | History of education | Academia | School types | Lists of universities and colleges