Master of Laws
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Master of Laws is an advanced law degree, commonly abbreviated LL.M. (also LLM or LL.M) from its Latin name, Legum Magister. (For female students, the less common variant Legum Magistra may also be used.) The LL.M. degree is generally earned in a course of specialized study in law.
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[edit] Background on legal education in English-speaking countries
In order to become a lawyer and practice law, a person must first obtain a professional law degree. While in most countries a Bachelor of Laws degree is required, the U.S. requires a post-graduate Juris Doctor degree to practice law, which is equivalent to the older LL.B. A professional law degree is a generalized course of study that exposes students to a wide range of legal subjects. It is designed to provide the basic skills and knowledge needed to become a lawyer. As there are many required courses, it is hardly possible to focus on a particular area of law in the course of study leading to a Juris Doctor degree.
If a person wishes to gain specialized knowledge in a particular area of law, he or she can continue his or her studies after an LL.B or J.D. in an LL.M. program. The word legum is the genitive plural form of the Latin word lex, which means "law". When used in the plural, it signifies a specific body of laws, as opposed to the general collective concept embodied in the word jus, from which the words "juris" and "justice" derive.
[edit] International situation
In most countries, lawyers are not required to hold an LL.M degree, and nearly all choose not to obtain one. In fact, the education systems of most countries did not traditionally include LL.M. programs.
Historically, the LL.M. degree is an element particular to the education system of English speaking countries, which is based on a distinction between Bachelor's and Master's degrees. Over the past years, however, specialized LL.M. programs have been introduced in many European countries, even where the Bologna process has not yet been fully implemented.
[edit] Types of LL.M. degrees
There is a wide range of LL.M. programs available worldwide, allowing students to focus on almost any area of the law. Most universities offer only a small number of LL.M. programs. One of the most popular LL.M. degrees in the United States is tax law. Other common programs include environmental law, human rights law, commercial law, intellectual property law, information technology law, and international law. Some LL.M. programs, particularly in the United States, focus on teaching foreign lawyers the basic legal principles of the host country (a "comparative law" degree).
[edit] Requirements
LL.M. programs are usually only open to those students who have first obtained a professional law degree. Full-time LL.M. programs usually last one year and vary in their graduation requirements. Some programs require students to write a thesis, others do not. Some programs are research oriented with little classroom time, while others require students to take a set number of classes.
LL.M. degrees are often earned by students wishing to develop more concentrated expertise in a particular area of law. Pursuing an LL.M. degree may also allow law students to build a professional network. Some associations provide LL.M. degree holders with structures designed to strengthen their connections among peers and to access a competitive business environment.
[edit] The Australian approach
In Australia, the LLM is open to law graduates. However, while the majority who enrol are legal practitioners, this is not a pre-requisite for entry. The shortage of articles places has resulted in some LLB graduates proceeding directly to an LLM course prior to seeking graduate employment.
[edit] The United Kingdom approach
In the United Kingdom, where a degree in law is only the first step in a multiple steps process of becoming a lawyer, the LLM is open to law graduates who are not yet lawyers. In some institutions, the LLM Programme is even accessible for non-law graduates as well. For instance, the University of Edinburgh offers LLM degrees via distance learning [1]. In addition, the University of London External Programme has been offering LLM studies to both LLB and non-law graduates since 1925 [2].
[edit] The United States approach
In countries including the United States, the LLM is an advanced degree for persons who are already lawyers, rather than for persons wishing to become lawyers.
With regard to admitting foreign-educated lawyers to state bars, the United States has disparate rules. The two major states for legal practice, New York and California, take different paths. New York allows foreign lawyers to sit for the NY bar exam once they have completed a minimum of 20 credit hours (generally, within an LL.M. program, but not necessarily) at an ABA approved law school involving at least 2 basic subjects tested on the NY bar exam. In addition, foreign lawyers from civil law countries have to present that they attended at least 3 years of law studies in their home countries. Lawyers from common law countries face more lenient restrictions. California, on the other hand, allows students who have not completed a three-year legal degree program in American law (or, in very rare circumstances, an apprenticeship) to sit for its bar exam after completing an LL.M. in Comparative Law from an ABA approved law school. The culmination of the two must equal four years of legal study. Other states are similar to California in requiring an LL.M. to be taken by foreign lawyers in order to take the bar exam.
In the United States, the professional law degree discussed above is called the Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree. Persons in the United States who obtain an LL.M. do so after they have received their Juris Doctor degree. Thus, they receive a doctorate degree first and their Master of Laws degree second. This is due to the fact that the professional law degree in the United States was originally called the Bachelor of Laws, abbreviated as LL.B. Although some U.S. law schools had granted a Juris Doctor degree to graduates holding a bachelor's degree, it wasn't until the late 1960's that the American Bar Association approved the change for all of its affiliated law schools to better represent the academic standing of those holding law degrees. However, the LL.M. name was never changed, resulting in a situation where a Master of Laws degree is actually a more advanced degree than a Juris Doctor degree for U.S.-educated lawyers.
However, a general LL.M. degree is often sought by foreign lawyers who wish to practice in the United States. An LL.M. degree from an ABA-approved law school allows a foreign lawyer to become eligible to apply for admission to practice in certain states, such as New York.
[edit] LL.M. Related Links
- American Bar Association (ABA): Overview of Post-J.D. Programs in the U.S.
- LLM-Guide: LLM Programs worldwide.
- LLM.uniiks: LLM global database.
