Makarios III

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Archbishop Makarios III
Makarios III
In office
August 16, 1960 – August 3, 1977
Vice President(s)   Dr. Fazıl Küçük
Preceded by New office
Succeeded by Spyros Kyprianou
Born August 13, 1913
Panagia, Paphos, Cyprus
Died August 3, 1977
Political party No party

Makarios III (Greek: Μακάριος Γ'; born Mihalis Christodoulou Mouskos (Μιχαήλ Χριστοδούλου Μούσκος), August 13, 1913 – August 3, 1977) was archbishop and primate of the autocephalous Cypriot Orthodox Church (1950-1977) and first President of the Republic of Cyprus (1960-1977).

Contents

[edit] Early life, studies, and Church career (1913-1950)

Makarios was born in the village of Panayia in the Paphos District on August 13, 1913. In 1926, at the age of 13, he was admitted to Kykko Monastery as a novice. At age 20 he was sent to the Pancyprian Gymnasium in Nicosia, where he completed his secondary education in 1936. He spent the difficult years of World War II studying theology and law at the University of Athens graduating in 1942. He took up the duties of a priest in the Orthodox Church while sustaining an interest in academic theology, he received a World Council of Churches scholarship to undertake further study at Boston University, Massachusetts, USA.

In 1948, while still studying at Boston, he was elected Bishop of Kition. Mouskos adopted the clerical name 'Makarios' and returned to Cyprus.

Makarios was a charismatic and popular figure in Cyprus, but his relationship with the British authorities was fraught. Like many public figures in the Greek Cypriot community on Cyprus, in the 1940s and 1950s he was an active supporter of enosis, the union of Cyprus with Greece.

[edit] Enosis and EOKA (1950-1955)

On 18 September 1950, Makarios was elected Archbishop of Cyprus. In this role he was not only the official head of the Orthodox Church in Cyprus, but became the Ethnarch, de facto national leader of the Greek Cypriot community. This highly influential position put Makarios at the centre of Cypriot politics.

During the 1950s, Makarios embraced his dual role as Archbishop and Ethnarch with enthusiasm and became a very popular figure among Greek Cypriots. He soon became a leading advocate for enosis, and during the early part of the decade he maintained close links with the Greek government. In August 1954, partly at Makarios’s instigation, Greece began to raise the Cyprus dispute at the United Nations, arguing for the principle of self-determination to be applied to Cyprus. This was viewed by advocates of enosis as likely to result in the voluntary union of Cyprus with Greece following a public plebiscite.

However, the British government were reluctant to decolonise the island which had become their new Headquarters for the Middle East. The 1950s were a troubled decade for the British Empire and the cause of enosis was quickly and amorphously allied to the idea of independence. In 1955, a pro-enosis organisation was formed under the banner of 'Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston' (in English 'National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters') or 'EOKA'. This is a typical independence movement of the period, viewed by some as a legitimate resistance movement and by others as an intimidatory terrorist group. The issue is still controversial. Makarios undoubtedly had common political ground with EOKA and was acquainted with its leader, the Greek soldier and politician George Grivas, but the extent of his involvement is unclear and disputed. In later life he categorically denied any involvement in the violent resistance undertaken by EOKA.

[edit] Exile, escalation and Taksim (1955-60)

On August 20 of the same year, Greece submitted a petition to the United Nations requesting the application of the principle of self-determination to the people of Cyprus. After that, the colonial Government of Cyprus enforced the anti-sedition laws for the purpose of preventing or suppressing demonstrations for freedom; but the Archbishop defied them and continued demanding self-determination for Cyprus.

In October 1955, with the security situation deteriorating, the British governor, Sir John Harding, opened talks on the island’s future. By this stage, Makarios had become closely identified with the insurgency, and talks broke up without any agreement in early 1956. Makarios, characterised in the British press as a crooked Greek priest and viewed with suspicion by the British authorities, was exiled to Mahe Island in the Seychelles on 9 March. EOKA continued its campaign of protests and violence during this period.

In the latter years of the 1950s, the Turkish Cypriot community first began to float the idea of Taksim or partition, as a counterweight to the Greek ideal of enosis or union. Advocates of Taksim felt that the Turkish Cypriot community would be persecuted in a Greek Cyprus, and that only by keeping part of the island under either British or Turkish sovereignty could the safety of the Turkish Cypriots be guaranteed. In this way the Cyprus dispute became increasingly polarised between two communities with opposing visions of the future of the island.

Makarios was released from exile after a year, although he was still forbidden to return to Cyprus. He went instead to Athens, where he was rapturously received. Basing himself in the Greek capital, he continued to work for enosis. During the following two years he attended the General Assembly of the United Nations where the Cyprus question was discussed and worked hard to achieve freedom for his people.

Under the premiership of Constantine Karamanlis in Greece, the goal of enosis gradually was abandoned in favour of Cypriot independence. Negotiations in 1958 generated the Zurich Agreement as a basis for a deal on independence, and Makarios was invited to London in 1959 to fine-tune the plan. Makarios at first refused to accept the plan. The reversal of his pro-enosis stance, and his eventual agreement to sign the conditions for the independence of Cyprus, have been attributed to moral suasion on behalf of the Greek and British governments. According to a more controversial account, the archbishop was blackmailed by the MI6 with disclosure of material relating to his private life.[1]

On 1 March 1959 the archbishop returned to Cyprus to an unprecedented reception in Nicosia, where almost two-thirds of the adult Greek Cypriot population turned out to welcome him. Presidential elections were held on 13 December 1959 and Makarios roundly defeated his rival, lawyer John Klerides – father of future president and Makarios ally Glafkos Klerides – receiving two-thirds of the vote. Makarios was to become the political leader of all Cyprus as well as the communal leader of the Greek Cypriots.

[edit] Primacy and presidency (1960-1963)

After his election Makarios, together with the Vice-President-elect, Dr. Fazıl Küçük, continued to draw up plans for Cyprus’s future. By now, Makarios – always a canny politician – had accepted that enosis was not to be, and that the only outcome which could secure harmony in Cyprus was robust independence. Taking office on 16 August 1960, the day the Union flag was finally lowered in Nicosia, Makarios moved towards the moderate centre of Cypriot politics and now pursued a policy of non-alignment, cultivating good relations with Turkey as well as Greece and becoming a high-profile member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).

In March 1961, Cyprus was admitted as member of the Commonwealth of Nations and His Beatitude represented the Island at the Commonwealth Prime Ministers΄ Conference. He attended the Belgrade NAM conference in September 1961, and unnerved the governments in London and Washington with his lukewarm policy towards the West. This was seen in the United States as unpredictability and a tendency towards communism and Makarios was vilified as the "Castro of the Mediterranean," although he had by now been rehabilitated in the British press and was affectionately nicknamed ‘Black Mak’ on account of his clerical garb.

But the idea of an independent path for Cyprus had not taken root among the general public at home, and the political scene was still highly polarised. There was increasing acrimony between Turkish and Greek Cypriots about the workings of the constitution, and Makarios was forced to act to salvage the machinery of state from imminent collapse. In November 1963, Makarios proposed Thirteen Amendments to the Constitution, which would free up many public offices from the ethnic restrictions agreed in London and Zurich. This, he argued, would allow the government to operate more efficiently and bring together the communities by dissolving rigid inter-ethnic legal boundaries. However, the Amendments were seen by many Turkish Cypriots as threatening constitutional protections for them against domination by the majority Greek Cypriots. In response to Makarios’s proposals, most Turkish Cypriots in public office, including Vice-President Kucuk, resigned, and large numbers of Turkish Cypriots moved out of ethnically-mixed areas into villages and towns where the population was already largely Turkish Cypriot. There is still dispute over the motives for this, some arguing that it was made necessary by the intimidation of the Turkish Cypriots by the Greek Cypriots, and others suggesting that the Turkish community was sabotaging the Cypriot settlement and already preparing for partition by Turkey. By the end of 1963, intercommunal violence had broken out once again and the atmosphere on the island was volatile.

[edit] Makarios and the Cyprus Problem (1964-1977)

The political landscape in Cyprus remained interminable. UN peacekeeping operations (UNFICYP) commenced in 1964 and helped to soothe, but not to solve, the situation. Makarios continued his high-profile neutrality, but ultimately failed either to reassure the Turkish Cypriots that they were safe in an independent Cyprus, or to convince the Greek Cypriots that independence was a satisfactory alternative to assimilation within a Greater Greece.

President Makarios, seeking a fresh mandate from his constituency, announced in January 1968 that elections would be held during February. Makarios received 220,911 votes (about 96 percent), and his opponent, Takis Evdokas, running on a pro-enosis platform, received 8,577 votes. Even though there were 16,215 abstentions, Makarios's overwhelming victory was seen as a massive endorsement of his personal leadership and of an independent Cyprus. At his investiture, the president stated that the Cyprus problem could not be solved by force, but had to be worked out within the framework of the UN. He also said that he and his followers wanted to live peacefully in a unitary state where all citizens enjoyed equal rights. Some Cypriots opposed Makarios's conciliatory stance, and there would be an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate him in 1970.

In 1967, a military junta seized power in Athens. The relationship between the regime and Makarios was tense. Makarios held that the military regime undermined his authority by supporting EOKA-B, a paramilitary organization committed to enosis.

In the summer of 1971, tension built up between the two communities, and incidents became more numerous. Sometime in the late summer or early fall, Grivas (who had attacked Makarios as a traitor in an Athens newspaper) returned secretly to the island and began to rebuild his guerrilla organization, which became known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B -- EOKA-B). Three new newspapers advocating enosis were also established at the same time. All of these activities were funded by the military junta that controlled Greece. The junta probably would have agreed to some form of partition similar to the Acheson Plan to settle the Cyprus question, however it faced the rejection of Makarios. The overthrow of Makarios was the primary objective, and the junta backed Grivas toward that end. Grivas, from hiding, directed terrorist attacks and propaganda assaults that shook the Makarios government, but the president remained a powerful, popular leader.

Relations between Nicosia and Athens were at such a low ebb that the colonels of the Greek junta, recognizing that they had Makarios in a perilous position, issued an ultimatum for him to reform his government and rid it of ministers who had been critical of the junta. The colonels, however, had not reckoned with the phenomenal popularity of the archbishop, and once again mass demonstrations proved that Makarios had the people behind him. In the end, however, Makarios bowed to Greek pressure and reshuffled the cabinet.

Working against Makarios was the fact that most officers of the Cypriot National Guard were Greek regulars who supported the junta, and its desire to remove him from office and achieve some degree of enosis. Grivas was also a threat to the archbishop. He remained powerful and to some extent was independent of the junta that had permitted his return to Cyprus. While the Greek colonels were at times prepared to make a deal with Turkey about Cyprus, Grivas was ferociously opposed to any arrangement that did not lead to complete enosis.

In the spring of 1972, Makarios faced an attack from another quarter. The three bishops of the Church of Cyprus demanded that he resign as president, because his temporal duties violated canon law. Moving astutely, Markarios foiled the three bishops and had them defrocked in the summer of 1973. Before choosing their replacements, he increased the number of bishoprics to five, thereby reducing the power of individual bishops. For more information see ecclesiastical coup.

Grivas and his pursuit of enosis through guerilla tactics had become an embarrassment to the Greek Cypriot government, as well as to the Greek government that had sponsored his return to the island. His fame and popularity in both countries, however, prevented his removal. Grivas however died of a heart attack on January 27, 1974. Makarios granted his followers an amnesty, hoping that EOKA-B would disappear after the death of its leader. Intra-communal terror continued, however, and the 100,000 mourners who attended Grivas's funeral indicated the enduring popularity of his political aims.

On May 3, 1974, Makarios sent the Greek government a letter that identified certain Greek military officers stationed in Cyprus as undermining the Cypriot government. The Greek regime responded that it would replace the officers in question. In a second letter addressed on July 2, Makarios demanded the withdrawal of all Greek officers in the island. Greek Foreign Minister S. Tetenes suggested as a compromise that Makarios personally select the replacement officers from a roster of Greek officers. On July 11, Glafkos Klerides visited Makarios in an unsuccessful attempt to promote a compromise solution. Makarios was adamantly opposed. Finally, in July 15, 1974 the Greek regime sponsored a coup d'etat in Nicosia. Makarios fled and was replaced by Nikos Sampson, a Cypriot newspaper editor and politician.

While addressing the UN Security Council on July 19, 1974, Makarios accused Greece of having invaded Cyprus and of posing a threat to all the Cypriots, either Greek or Turkish Cypriot. Under the terms of the Treaty of Guarantee, Britain, Greece and Turkey were entitled to sanction one or all of them to intervene militarily to restore peace to the island.

At the time the Greek Junta was imploding, and the British government was facing the constitutional uncertainty of a hung parliament; moreover, whilst in London, Makarios lobbied that the British military not intervene as a guarantor power.[2] Turkey which was trying to find a chance to capture a part of Cyprus, as the only Guarantor power which was willing to act, found its best chance and acted. As is to be expected, the invasion of Cyprus by Turkey on 20 July, five days after the coup, remains highly controversial. Northern Cyprus remained occupied despite with the presence of Turkish Army, despite that the constitution and presidency were restored. To Turks and Turkish Cypriots it is known as a ‘peace operation’, designed to protect the Turkish Cypriot community. To Greeks and Greek Cypriots, it represented the execution of a long-standing ploy to re-establish Turkish control of a large portion of Cyprus. The international consensus, given subsequent resolutions of the United Nations and other international forums, is that Turkey illegally invaded and occupied an independent country.

Bronze statue of Makarios outside the Archbishopric
Bronze statue of Makarios outside the Archbishopric

Nikos Sampson’s presidency was short-lived, as the regime in Athens collapsed only a few days further to the Turkish invasion. Unsupported, Sampson fled, and the former constitution was restored. In the continuing absence of a vice-president, the presidency passed to the Speaker of the House of Representatives, Glafkos Klerides. Makarios remained in London for five months. Having succeeded in securing international recognition that his administration was the rightful government of the whole island, he returned to Cyprus and focused solely on restoring Cypriot territorial integrity. He was not successful. Turkey has remained in occupation ever since and the situation is still unresolved.

[edit] Death and legacy

Makarios III died unexpectedly on August 3, 1977, of a heart attack. It has recently emerged that Makarios’ heart had been removed at autopsy (to confirm the cause of death). It has since been preserved in his former bedroom in the Archbishopric[3]. He is buried in a tomb in the mountain of Throni, personally chosen while still alive, near Kykkos Monastery, where he served as a novice in the 1920s and 1930s. An imposing bronze statue of Makarios was erected outside the Archbishopric in Nicosia.

He remains a controversial figure. Many consider him as a national hero and an Ethnarch. There has even been discussion in the Church of Cyprus for his santification. Others criticized him for abandoning the goal of enosis in favor of independence, as well as for exercising a style of government reminiscent of caesaropapism. Makarios has also been criticized for his speech at the UN Security Council on July 19, 1974, which was used as an alibi by Turkey for its military invasion of Cyprus.[2]

He is possibly the most significant figure in recent Cypriot politics, and his efforts to secure international consensus on the legitimacy of the Greek Cypriot government after 1974 have provided the backdrop against which the whole recent political history of the Cyprus Question has been played out.

[edit] Quotes

“Έλληνες Κύπριοι, νενικήκαμεν!” (“Greek Cypriots, we have won!”) - Makarios, March 1, 1959 following the signing of the London agreement for the independence of Cyprus

“The coup of the Greek junta is an invasion, and from its consequences the whole people of Cyprus suffers, both Greeks and Turks.” - Makarios, July 19, 1974, UN Security Council

“Independence was not the aim of the EOKA struggle. Foreign factors have prevented the achievement of the national goal, but this should not be a cause for sorrow, New bastions have been conquered and from these bastions the Greek Cypriots will march on to complete the final victory.” - Makarios, August 16, 1974

Preceded by
Makarios II		 Archbishop of Cyprus
1950– 1977		 Succeeded by
Chrysostomos I
Preceded by
New office		 President of Cyprus
1960– July 1974		 Succeeded by
Nikos Sampson (interim)
Preceded by
Glafkos Klerides (interim)		 President of Cyprus
December 1974 – 1977		 Succeeded by
Spyros Kyprianou

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  • Christopher Hitchens, Cyprus, Quartet Books 1984
  • Glafkos Klerides, My Deposition, Alithia Publishing 1992
  • John Reddaway, Burdened with Cyprus: The British Connection, Weidenfeld & Nicolson 1986
  • Ange S. Vlachos, Graduation 1974, Oceanis 2001
  • P.N. Vanezis, Makarios: Faith & Power, Abelard-Schuman 1971
  • Nigel West (Rupert Allason), The Friends: Britain's Post-War Secret Intelligence Operations, Coronet 1990 (OP)
  1. ^ Nigel West (Rupert Allason), The Friends: Britain's Post-War Secret Intelligence Operations, Coronet 1990.
  2. ^ a b Ange S. Vlachos, Graduation 1974, Oceanis 2001 .
  3. ^ The Cyprus Mail (archive article - Thursday, November 16, 2006) [1]

[edit] External links

Presidents of Cyprus Flag of Cyprus
Makarios III • Nikos Sampson* • Glafkos Klerides* • Makarios III • Spyros Kyprianou • George Vasiliou • Glafkos Klerides • Tassos Papadopoulos
* denotes acting
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