List of Arabic loanwords in English

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

[edit] Introduction

There are dozens of Arabic loanwords in English. Many of them passed first through other European languages (in particular Spanish) before being taken up by English.

But some of these loanwords from Arabic (a Semitic language) are in turn loanwords, from Latin, Greek, or from a fellow Afroasiatic language (Coptic; one of the Semitic languages, Hebrew, Aramaic, Akkadian).

The user of this list is cautioned that etymological research in English has been only partially successful for some words, and that includes a small fraction of words deemed Arabic loanwords: the attribution as an Arabic loanword is but tentative. Even for words whose status as Arabic loanwords is not in doubt, perusal of various dictionaries, including the Diccionario de la lengua española and various dictionaries of English, reveals cases where the dictionaries differ with each other on the details of the proposed etymology.


Content and substantiation of list entries

A list of dictionaries consulted has been given. Detailed explanations have been given for the few loanwords whose interpretation has been impacted by substantial developments in intellectual or social history. For example, the meaning conveyed by "alcohol" seems not not to have been borrowed from Arabic, but seems rather to have arisen among European alchemists after the word had been borrowed. Furthermore, efforts have been made to indicate when the Arabic word is itself a loanword and when the ascription of an English word to Arabic is tentative. But it has been deemed unnecessary to provide sources or detailed etymologies for the mere purpose of confirming that an entry is indeed an Arabic loanword, given: the ready availability of online dictionaries; the length of this list; and, the fact already mentioned that different dictionaries differ on the details of some word etymologies.


Rationale for inclusion in the list

This list has been edited to include words that represent some lasting influence of one culture upon another, specifically, of the Arabic speaking world upon Europe. Examples of "influence" are: new words for material objects, technology, intellectual knowledge, ideas, or cultural practices already possessed by European society; the adoption by European societies of new material objects, etc. from the Arabic speaking world. Hence, items which did not significantly cross over from the Arabic speaking world are excluded. That a society is aware of place names, folklore, garments, foods, etc. from another part of the world and has catalogued the words for these things in its dictionaries is viewed as falling short of that society having been influenced. A person who encounters such words in their reading will reasonably expect a dictionary of the English language to double as a microencyclopedia, "tourism guide", or "gazetteer" for foreign items that remain exclusively foreign. This list, by contrast, has a different purpose.

This criterion would lead to the exclusion of words such as arrack (an alcoholic drink), aba (a type of garment), afreet (type of demon; example of a vivid mythical concept useful for emotive expression), and Allah. As for Allah, every "Westerner" already knows what it means, and Westerners who do believe in a single God but do not follow Islam and are not Arabic speakers already have the words "God", "Dios", etc. at their disposal and so they are not going to adopt the word "Allah" for use in their own religious practices.)

As for phonetic transcriptions, three symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), [ʕ, x, γ] have been consistently applied.

  • [ʕ] is found in [ʕarab] 'Arab'. Traditionally, it is spelled with a single opening quote mark, but computer keyboards do not distinguish between opening and closing quote marks.
  • [x] is like 'ch' in German, and it is usually spelled 'kh' in spelling Arabic words.
  • [γ] (lower case Greek gamma) represents the voiced counterpart of [x].

Other transcriptions use non-IPA symbols which are standard in the literature on Arabic grammar and literature. The numeral '7' denotes the glottal stop as in the middle sound of the English interjection, "uh-oh". When an entire word is spelled in IPA, it is enclosed in square brackets per IPA standard.

[edit] Loanwords listed in alphabetical order

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Contents

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Top of page — See also — External links

[edit] A

Acamar
‘’akhir al-nahr’’= “the river's end” [4]
Achernar 
Name of a star. It comes from the Arabic آخر النهر ākhir an-nahr "river's end".
adhara
A star name ,from Arabic "al-'adhara"- "the virgins’’. [5]
admiral 
أميرالبحار, amīr al-bihār commander of the seas
adobe 
الطوب aṭ-ṭūb, the bricks
Al Niyat
A star name , comes from the Arabic ‘’النياط -an-niyāţ ‘’ meaning "the arteries’’. [6]
albacore 
الباكورة al-bakūra, perhaps from bakūr, premature
albali
البالع ‘’al-bali’’- "the swallower" [7]
albatross (or algatross) 
الغطاس al-γaṭṭās (or al-ghaṭṭās), the diver
alcazar
From Arabic ‘’al= the + qaṣr = CASTLE,’’ , any of various Spanish fortresses or palaces built by the Moors [8]
alchemy 
الكيمياء al-alkīmiyā2, from Greek khēmia, khēmeia, art of transmuting metals[1]
alcohol 
الغول - الكحول in the literature of late European alchemy, the quintessence of an earthly substance. See kohl in this list. The idea of "quintessences of earthly substances" and the use of "alcohol" to denote quintessences are developments in European alchemy in the 14th century. From the 1500s on, the denotation of "alcohol" narrowed down to "quintessence of wine" or "spirit of wine", i.e., ethanol, CH3CH2OH, as the term "alcool vini" (quintessence of wine) got shortened to "alcool" or "alcohol". The term alco(h)ol vini supplanted the original quinta essentia vini, 'fifth essence of wine'.[2][3]
alcove 
قبة - طاقة al-qubba, the vault
Aldebaran 
al-dabarān, the follower; used to name a star in the constellation of Taurus
alembic 
الإنبيق al-anbiq, still (in distillation), from Greek ambix, stem ambik-, cup
algebra 
الجبر al-jabr, the restoring of missing parts. This word entered Middle English in the sense of 'the setting of broken bones'. The modern mathematical sense comes from the title of a book, al-kitāb al-muxtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-jabr wa-l-muqābala, "The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing", by the 9th-century Muslim mathematician Muḥammad ibn Mūsa al-Xwārizmī. The appellation al-xwārizmī means literally "the Khwārizmian", referring to Khwārizm, now Khiva, in Uzbekistan. Another legacy of this mathematician is that his appellation gave rise to the word algorithm.
Algorism
[9] see also algorithm in this list.
algorithm or ;Algorism  
al-xwārizmī, the Khwārizmian. Appellation of the Persian scientist, Muḥammad ibn Mūsa al-Xwārizmī, who wrote the first book on algebra. See algebra in this list.
alidade 
عضادة , عِضَادة From French alidade, from Spanish alidada, from Arabic (عضادة ,عِضَادة ,عضد)‘upper arm’.[10]
alizarine
From the Arabic word (al =the + ʿaṣārah= juice) + -ine [11]
alkali 
القلي from qalā, to fry, to roast. 'Alkali' originally meant a saline substance derived from the ashes of plants
almanac 
al-manāx (or al-manākh), "the climate", possibly from Greek almenichiakon, "calendar"
alfalfa
‘’al-fisfisa’’’ = fresh fodder [12]
alnitak
(star name), alnitak [13]
Altair (star) 
نسر) الطائر) (nasr) aţ-ţā7ir, the flying (eagle)
Algedi
a star name , from the Arabic word "الجديّ ‘’al-jadiyy, " meaning "the billy goat" or "kid". [14]
Algenib
A star name ,from Arabic " الجنب al-janb, " "the flank" or " الجانب ’al-jānib’, " the flank. [15]
algieba
Star name from the Arabic Al-Jabhah, meaning the forehead. The star's Latin name is Juba.[16]
algol
A star name ,from Arabic word "al-ghul" [17]
alhambra
الحمراءFrom the Arabic word '"al-hamra'" = the red. Arabic (al kal'at) al hamra "the red (castle)," from fem. of ahmuru "red."
alium
عالمFrom the Arabic word scholars of Muslim religious law," from Arabic '"ulema '"learned men, scholars," pl. of '"alim '" learned," from '"alama '"- to know
alkanet
From the Arabic word '"al-hinna'"=the henna. [18]
Alkaid
القائد Name of a star derives from '"البنات القائد النعش,’’ al-qāid al-banāt an-nac'" meaning "The leader of the daughters of the bier". See also guid in this list.[19]
alkes
الكأس '"al-ka's'" "the wine cup"[20]
alphard
'"al-fard'" "the solitary one"[21]
Alpheratz
The names Alpheratz and Sirrah both derive from the original Arabic name, سرةالفرس ‘’’sirrat al-faras,’’’ "navel of the steed". [22]
Alrai
a star name (also known as Errai / Er Rai) , from the Arabic word الراعي’’’ ar-rā‘ī,’’’ meaning "the shepherd". [23]
Alterf
From Arabic al-tterf, "view" .[24]
Alya
اللية A star name derived from an Arabic term meaning "the fatty tail" of an Oriental breed of sheep.

[25]

amalgam
الملغمFrom the Arabic word ’’’ al-malgham’’’.The word may have come from Greek. via Arabic ‘’’al-malgham’’’. Amalgamation in the figurative sense of "combining into one uniform whole." [[26]]
amarillo
From the Arabic word ‘’’ambari/anbari ‘’’= yellow [[27]]
amber
From the Arabic word ‘’’amber/anbar ‘’’=yellow [[28]]
aniline 
نيلة - صبغ النيل al-nili, in turn from Persian 'nili' meaning indigo, ultimately from Sanskrit nilah "dark blue"
antimony
From the Arabic word ‘’’othmud/ithmid,’’’ antimony trisulphid.
apricot
From the Arabic word al-birquq [antimony&searchmode=term]
arsenal 
دار الصناعة dār aṣ-ṣināʕa, house of manufacturing
artichoke 
الخرشوف al-xurshūf, “ardi shauk” in a arabic means “ground thorn”
arided
Arabic star name from dheneb, the Arabic for "tail", from the phrase ذنب الدجاجة ðanab ad-dajājah, or "tail of the hen". [29]
assassin 
from حشاشين ḥashshāshīn, those who use hashish (cannabis resin).
attar
From the Arabic word itr/utur= perfume,aroma. [&searchmode=term]
aubergine 
from الباذنجان al-bãdhinjãn, ultimately from Persian bâdinjân.
average 
عوارية (بضاعة اصابها عطب في البحر) - متوسط of disputed origin; possibly from ʕawārīya, damaged merchandise, or from Italian avere or French avoir, property, from Latin habere, to have
azimuth 
السموت as-sumūt, the paths
azure 
لازورد lazeward, from Persian lazhvard

[edit] B

barbican or Barbacan
Outer fortification of a city or castle , perhaps from Arabic or Persian ‘ bab-khanah =gate-house".[30], [31]
barding
from Arabic’’ bardaʿah ‘’ packsaddle -any of various pieces of defensive armor for a horse covering .[32]
barrio
barrio "district, suburb," from Arabic barriya "open country", from barr "outside" (of the city). [33]
bedouin or Beduin.
From Arabic ‘’badawī’’ desert-dweller (badw =desert + -ī suffix of appurtenance)[34]
benzoin 
لبان جاوي labān jāwī, "frankincense of Java". Benzoin is an organic chemical solvent extracted from a resin of an Asian tree.
Betelgeuse 
يد الجوزاء . The spelling with 'b' is a corruption of yad al-jawzā7 the hand of the central one[4]
bezoar
from Arabic bazahr, from Persian “pad-zahr (counter-poison,) from “pad "=protecting, guardian, master" + zahr= "poison." [35]
bonito
Any mackerellike fish of the genus Sarda.From Arabic word ‘’ bainīth ‘’.[36]
burnous/burnoose 
برنوس burnūs, in turn from Latin byrrhus
borax
بورق from Arabic buraq.[37]
Botein
Name of a star. It comes from Arabic ‘’buţain,’’ dual of بطن baţn meaning "belly. [38]

[edit] C

caliber 
قالب qâlib, 'mould'. It is possible that the Arabic word is in turn a Greek loanword.[5] Qalib is a word derived from the Arabic root q-l-b, as in qalaba yaqlibu qalban etc., it is highly unlikely that it is of Greek origin.
camphor
كافور from Arabic kafur . [[39]]
candy
قند short of sugar candy, from sugar+qandi/candid, from qand ‘ can sugar’.[[40]]
Caph
Star name , from the Arabic word كف kaf, "palm".
caramel 
possibly from Arabic, more likely from Latin cannamellis, burnt honey
carat
qirat ‘ small weight’[[41]]
caraway 
كراوية karāwiya
carmine 
ultimately from Sanskrit krmi-ja. See 'kermes' below.
carob 
خرّوب xarrūb, (1) locust; (2) carob bean
checkmate 
shah māt, the king has died, ultimately from Persian
chemistry 
see alchemy in this list
cipher 
صفر ṣifr, zero
civet
zaba’d [42]
coffee 
قهوة qahwa, itself possibly from Kefa, Ethiopia, where the plant originated.
Copt 
Qibṭ, from Greek Aigyptios and ultimately from Ancient Egyptian hwt-k3-ptḥ (possibly pronounced *Hāwit-kāʔ-Pitáḥ), the House of the God Pitah.
cotton 
قطن quṭun
crimson 
qirmizī, of the dye kermes, from Persian ghermez, red. See 'kermes' below.
curcuma
From Arabic word kurkum =saffron, turmeric.[43]

[edit] D

Dabih
]]: Star name , from the Arabic word dabih, meaning "butchers".[44]
date
دقل - بلح Possibly from Arabic daqal "date palm". [45]
deneb
‘’’'danab al-dajaja’’' "the hen's tail"[46]
deneb al gedi
‘’’dhanab al-jady’’’ "the kid's tail"[47]
Dhow
A lateen-rigged sailing vessel used by Arabs [48]. From Arabian dawa [49]
diphdah
(al-difdi' al-thani) "the second frog"[50]
divan
ديوان Oriental council of state," from Turkish. divan, from Arabic diwan, from Persian. devan "bundle of written sheets, small book, collection of poems"[51]
dragoman 
ترجمان tarjumān, from Aramaic turgemānā, in turn from Akkadian[6].
drub
‘’’daraba,’’’ ‘beat’[[52]]

[edit] E

elixir 
الإكسير al-'iksīr, (1) philosopher's stone; (2) medicinal potion. From Greek xērion, powder for drying wounds
emir 
أمير, amīr.

[edit] F

felucca
From Arabic word ‘’ falūwah’’= small cargo ship [53]
Fomalhaut 

The brightest star in the constellation Piscis Austrinus and one of the brightest stars in the nighttime sky. Its name means "mouth of the whale", from the Arabic فم الحوت fum al-ḥawt

fustic 
الفسطيط أو الفستيق fosṭeeṭ, ultimately from Greek πιστακη pistakē, pistachio tree [6]

[edit] G

gala
perhaps from Arabic ‘’khil'a ‘’fine garment given as a presentation." Sense of "festive occasion. [54]
garble 
γarbala, sift; ultimately from Latin cribellum, sieve
gauze 
qazz, in turn from Persian kazh (كژ) "raw silk".
gazelle 
غزال γazāl
gerbil 
See jerboa in this list. The word "gerbil" is a European created diminutive of "jerboa", but the words refer to distinct species.
ghoul 
غول γūl
giraffe 
زرافة zarāfa[7]

[edit] H

halal
حلال from Arabic ‘’’Halal’’’= "lawful." food has been prepared in a manner prescribed by Islamic law. [55]

hamal: Arabic "hammal" = porter (a porter in countries of southwest Asia). [56]

harem 
حريم ḥarīm, "sanctity"
hashish 
حشيش ḥashīsh, grass
hazard 
الزهر az-zahr, chance, name of the pieces used in the game of 'nard,' or 'tawola.'
hegira 
هجرةhijra, departure; hajara, expatriation, immigration
henna 
حنة ḥinna

[edit] I

Izar
From the Arabic word ازار izār "veil" which means at least two things:

1- a star also known as Pulcherrima . 2- IZAR, the bankrupt Spanish shipbuilder.[57]


[edit] J

jacket
from Arabic shakk "breastplate." [58]
jar 
جرة jarrah, large earthen vase
jasmine
from French. jasmin, , from Arabic yas(a)min.[59]
jerboa 
جربوع jarbūʕ. See also gerbil in this list.

[edit] K

kaffir 
كفر kafar.
kef
from Arabic kaif "well-being, good-humor." Specifically, state of dreaming intoxication produced by smoking cannabis[60]
kermes 
قرمز qirmiz perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit krmi-ja, worm-produced
kohl 
الكحل al-kuḥl, kohl. Powdered stibnite, used for millennia to decorate the eyes and as an eye medicine. (Stibnite is an ore of the element antimony.)

[edit] L

lacquer
a kind of sealing wax," from Port. lacre, unexplained variant of lacca "resinous substance," from Arabic lakk[61]
lemon 
الليمون, laymūn and Persian leemo (ليمو)
lilac
from Arabic lilak, from Pers. lilak, variant of nilak "bluish," from nil "indigo" [62]
lime
Arabic limah "citrus fruit," a back-formation or a collective noun from limun "lemon"[63]
loofah 
from the Egyptian Arabic word lūfa.
lute 
العود al-ʕūd, "the oud", a forerunner of the guitar.

[edit] M

macrame 
miqrama, embroidered veil
magazine 
maxāzin, (or makhāzin), storehouses,
mascara 
uncertain origin; possibly from maskhara "buffoon" or from an unknown language. In modern Arabic maskhara means to ridicule
massage 
uncertain whether ultimately from either Arabic massa, to stroke, or from Latin massa, dough
matador
"killer," from matar "to kill or wound," probably from Arabic mata "he died," . [64]
mattress 
مطرح matrah, (1) spot where something is thrown down; (2) mat, cushion
Menkar
Star name. The name Menkar comes from the Arabic word منخر manxar "nostril" .[65]
minaret
منارة from Fr. minaret, from Turk. minare, from Arabic manarah, manarat "lamp, lighthouse, minaret," related to manar "candlestick
mocha 
مخا al-muxā (or al-mukhā), city of Mocha, Yemen
mohair 
مخير muxayyar, having the choice
mogul
مغول From Arabic mughal,mughul of Mongol. [66]
monkey
from Arabic ‘’maimun’’= "monkey”. [67]


monsoon 
موسم mawsim, season
mosque
from Arabic masjid "=temple, place of worship," from sajada "he worshipped" + prefix ma- denoting "place." In M.E. as muskey, moseache, etc. [68]
mummy  
موميا mūmiyyā, embalmed corpse (ultimately from Persian).
muphrid
(mufrad al-ramih) "the single one of the lance-bearer"[69]
muslin 
derived from the name of the Iraqi city of Mosul, where cotton fabric was manufactured

[edit] N

nadir 
نظير naẓīr, parallel or counterpart
nihal
star name: from “al-nihal-“ , "the drinking camels"[70]
Nucha  
نخاع ، منخع  : spinal cord, from Medieval Latin, from Arabic nuḫā', marrow, spinal cord. [8]
nunnation 
A speech disorder ‘stammering’ , in which the ‘’n’’ sound is given to other consonants. From Arabic ‘’Nun- ن , ‘’ the letter n.

[71] [72]

[edit] O

orange
From Arabic word ‘’ naranj’’, from Persian. narang, . [73]

[edit] P

popinjay 
ببفا babaγā


[edit] Q

qias
Also, kiyas. judgment of an act or belief by application of established principles governing some analogous act or belief.[74]

[edit] R

race
"people of common descent," possibly from Arabic ra's "head, beginning. origin". [75]
racquet or 'racket' 
راحة rāḥah, palm of the hand
Rasalas
A star name comes from Arabic ‘’ras-al-assad’’ ="head of the lion".

[76]

realgar 
rahj al-ghar[6]
ream (quantity of sheets of paper) 
رزمة rizma, bale, bundle
Rigel 
رجل rijl, foot, leg. The star's name comes from its location at the "left foot" of Orion. It is a contraction of rijl jawza al-yusra, left foot of the Central One.


roc
large, ferocious bird of fable, from Arabic rukhkh, from Pers. rukh. ".[77]


Rucbah
Star name , from the Arabic word ركبة rukbah meaning "knee".

[78]

[edit] S

Sadalsuud
Star name, from an Arabic expression سعد السعود sacd as-sucūd, meaning "luck of lucks". [79]
sadr
From Arabic word Sa'dr= Chest[80]
safari
from Arabic, lit. "referring to a journey," from safar "journey." ".[81]

safflower: From Arabic word ‘’ aṣfar ‘’ =yellow [82]

saffron 
زعفران zaʕfarān (or za9farān), species of crocus plant bearing orange stigmas and purple flowers.
sahara
from Ar. çahra "desert" (pl. çahara), according to Klein, "prop. fem. of the adj. asharu 'yellowish red,' used as a noun." [83]
sahib
from Hindi or Urdu sahib "master, lord," from Arabic, originally "friend, companion," from sahiba "he accompanied.” [84]
salep or saloop  
"a starch or jelly made from dried tubers of orchid-like plants, formerly used as a drug," from Arabic thaeleb, which usually is taken to be a shortening of khasyu 'th-thaeleb, lit. "fox's testicles. ".[[85]]
sash 
شاش shāsh, turban of muslin. See muslin in this list.
satin 
probably zaytūnī, of Zaytun
scarlet
Arabic siqillat "fine cloth. ".[[86]]
sequin 
sikka, die, coin
sertan
Arabic star name seratan[87]
sharif
sharif = noble, glorious, from sharafa = to be exalted. ".sharif&searchmode=term
sherbet, sorbet, shrub, syrup 
شراب sharāb, a drink
soda 
perhaps from suwwāda, suwayd, or suwayda, a species of plant
sirocco
hot wind blowing from the Libyan deserts, from vulgar Arabic shoruq "the east wind," from Arabic sharqi "eastern, east wind," from sharq "east," from sharaqa "to rise".".sirocco&searchmode=term
sofa 
ṣuffa, stone ledge
sumac or sumak
from Arabic summaq, from Syrian summaq "red." ".sumac&searchmode=term

[edit] T

tabby 
عتابي ʕattābī (9attābī), deriv. of (al-)ʕattābiyya, quarter of Baghdad where watered silk was first made, named after a prince, ʕattāb
tahini 
طحين ṭaḥīn, flour, which derives from the Arabic verb for "grind"
talc 
طلق
tamarind 
تمر هندي tamr-hindī date of India
tare 
tarḥa, discard (something discarded)[6]
tarf or Altarf
A star name, from Arabc word ‘’al-Tarf’’ = "the tip". [88] . See also Trafalgar in this list.
Trafalgar
الطرف الأغرّ (Al-taraf al-agharr); The derives from the Arabic, Taraf al-Gharb, which means The White Side [89]
tariff 
تعريفة taʕrīfa (or ta9rīfa), act of making known; notification
tazza 
طاسة ṭāsa, round, shallow, drinking cup made of metal
tell
mound, hill, from Arabic tall, related to Hebro. tel "mount, hill, heap.[90]


tobacco
from Arabic tabbaq".[91]


toque
kind of round hat, possibly from Arabic taqa. ".[92]


traffic
from Arabic ‘’’tafriq’’’ "distribution." Meaning "people and vehicles coming and going".

".[93]


typhoon
tufan, a word in Arabic, Persian and Hindi meaning "big cyclonic storm" ,from Arabic tafa "to turn round." ".[94]

[edit] V

Vega
From the Arabic word ’’’waqi’’ ’meaning "falling", via the phraseالنسر الواقع (an-nasr al-wāqi‘,) translated "the swooping eagle". [95]
vizier 
وزير wazīr, minister or official, adviser, ultimately from middle Persian (pahlavi) vacheer, minister or judge.


[edit] X

xebec or chebeck or zebec  
small, three-masted vessel of the Mediterranean, formerly much used by corsairs, now employed to some extent in commerce. From Arabic word ‘’shabbāk’’/Sumbuk =a small ship [96]

[edit] Z

zenith 
سمت الرأس samt ar-ra7s, zenith, vertex
zero 
صفر sifr, cipher, zero.
Contents: Top - 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z


[edit] Notes

  1. ^ [1]
  2. ^ Ball, chapter 9
  3. ^ Priesner and Figala, entry on "Alkohol"
  4. ^ [2], [3]
  5. ^ http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?l=c&p=1
  6. ^ a b c d Collins English Dictionary (1979)
  7. ^ W. Montgomery Watt. The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe. Edinburgh University Press. 1972
  8. ^ [ http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/nucha ]
For a list of words with Arabic language origins, see the Arabic derivations category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary

[edit] Bibliography

  • Ball, Philip. 2006. The Devil's Doctor : Paracelsus And The World Of Renaissance Magic And Science. 1st American edition. New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux. 436 p.
  • Concise Oxford English Dictionary (OED). 2004. Oxford Press
  • Dictionary.com
  • Madina, Maan Z. 1973. Arabic-English Dictionary of the Modern Literary Language. Pocket Books.
  • Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary (MWCD) Online
  • Priesner, Claus and Figala, Karin. 1998. Alchemie. Lexikon einer hermetischen Wissenschaft. München: C.H. Beck. 412 p.
  • Salloum, Habeeb and Peters, James. 1996. Arabic Contributions to the English Language. Beirut: Librairie du Liban.
  • Wehr, Hans. 1979. A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (Arabic-English), 4th ed. Edited by J Milton Cowan. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
  • Kashmery A-Refaat. (2006) Arabic Roots of Medical Terms الجذور العربية في المصطلحات الطبية ZU,ISBN: 977-338-171-4


[edit] See also

[edit] External links

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