Liang Qichao
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Liang Qichao (Chinese: 梁啟超, Liáng Qǐchāo; Courtesy: Zhuoru, 卓如; Pseudonym: Rengong, 任公) (February 23, 1873–January 19, 1929) was a Chinese scholar, journalist, philosopher and reformist during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), who inspired Chinese scholars with his writings and reform movements. He died of illness in Beijing at the age of 55.
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[edit] Biography
[edit] Family
Liang Qichao was born in a small village in Xinhui (新會), Guangdong Province on February 23, 1873.
Liang's father, Liang Baoying (梁寶瑛, courtesy name Lianjian 蓮澗), was a farmer, but a background in classics allowed him to introduce Liang to various literary works when Liang was six years old. By the age of nine, Liang started writing thousand-word essays and became a district-school student soon after.
Liang had two wives in his life: Ms. Li Huixian (李惠仙) and Ms. Wang Guiquan (王桂荃). They brought nine children to Liang; all of them became successful individuals through Liang's strict and effective education. Three of them were scientific personnel at the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
[edit] Early life
Liang passed the Xiucai (秀才) degree provincial examination at the age of 11. In 1884, he undertook the arduous task of studying for the traditional governmental exams. At the age of 16, he passed the Juren (舉人) second level provincial exams (the equivalent of a master’s degree) and was the youngest successful candidate at that time.
In 1890, Liang failed in his Jinshi (進士) degree national examinations in Beijing and never earned a higher degree. He took the exams along with Kang Youwei. The examiner had been determined to flunk Kang for his heterodox challenge to existing institutions, but since the exams were all anonymous, he could only presume that the exam with the most unorthodox views was Kang's. Instead, Kang disguised himself by writing an examination essay espousing traditionalist ideas and passed the exam while Liang's paper was assumed to be Kang's and picked out to be flunked.
Inspired by the book Information About the Globe (瀛環志略), Liang became extremely interested in western ideologies. After returning home, Liang went on to study with Kang Youwei, a famous Chinese scholar and reformist who was teaching at Wanmu Caotang (萬木草堂) in Guangzhou. Kang's teachings about foreign affairs fueled Liang's interest in reforming China.
In 1895, Liang went to the capital Beijing again with Kang for the national examination. During the examination, he was a leader of the Gong Zhe Shangshu movement. After failing to pass the examination for a second time, he stayed in Beijing to help Kang publish Domestic and Foreign Information. He also helped to organize the Society for National Strengthening (強學會), where Liang served as secretary. For time, he was also enlisted by the governor of Hunan, Chen Baozhen to edit reform-friendly publications, such as the Hunan Daily (Xiangbao 湘報) and the Hunan Journal (Xiang xuebao 湘學報).
[edit] Reform Movements
As an advocate of constitutional monarchy, Liang was unhappy with the governance of the Qing Government and wanted to change the status quo in China. He organised reforms with Kang Youwei (康有為, 1858-1927) by putting their ideas on paper and sending them to Emperor Guangxu (光緒帝, 1871-1908; reigned 1875-1908) of the Qing Dynasty. This movement is known as the Wuxu Reform or the Hundred Days' Reform. Their proposal asserted that China was in need of more than "self-strengthening", and called for many institutional and ideological changes such as getting rid of corruption and remodeling the state examination system.
He was famous for saying, "you must renovate fiction to renovate everything else." This referred to China's transformation during his life to Communism.
This proposal soon ignited a frenzy of disagreements, and Liang became a wanted man by order of Empress Cixi (慈禧太后,1835-1908), the leader of the political conservative party who later took over the government as regent. Cixi strongly opposed reforms at that time and along with her supporters, condemned the "Hundred Days' Reform" as being too radical.
In 1898, the Conservative Coup ended all reforms and exiled Liang to Japan, where he stayed for the next fourteen years of his life. In Japan, he continued to actively advocate democratic notions and reforms by using his writings to raise support for the reformers’ cause among overseas Chinese and foreign governments.
In 1899, Liang went to Canada, where he met Dr. Sun Yat-Sen among others, then to Honolulu in Hawaii. During the Boxer Rebellion, Liang was back in Canada, where he formed the "Save the Emperor Society" (保皇會). This organization later became the Constitutionalist Party which advocated constitutional monarchy. While Sun promoted revolution, Liang preached reform.
In 1900-1901, Liang visited Australia on a six-month tour which aimed at raising support for a campaign to reform the Chinese empire in order to modernise China through adopting the best of Western technology, industry and government systems. He also gave public lectures to both Chinese and Western audiences around the country. He returned to Japan later that year.
In 1903, Liang embarked on an eight-month lecture tour throughout the United States, which included a meeting with President Theodore Roosevelt in Washington, DC, before returning to Japan via Vancouver, Canada.
[edit] Politician
With the overthrow of the Qing dynasty, constitutional monarchy became an increasingly irrelevant topic in early republican China. He merged his renamed Democratic Party with the Republicans to form the new Progressive Party. He was very critical of Sun Yatsen's attempts to undermine President Yuan Shikai. Though usually supportive of the government, he opposed the expulsion of the Nationalists from parliament.
In 1915, he opposed Yuan's attempt to make himself emperor. He convinced his disciple Cai E, the military governor of Yunnan, to rebel. Progressive party branches agitated for the overthrow of Yuan and more provinces declared their independence. The revolutionary activity that he had frowned upon was utilized successfully. Besides Duan Qirui, Liang was the biggest advocate of entering World War I on the Allied side. He felt it would boost China's status and ameliorate foreign debts. He condemned his mentor, Kang Youwei, for assisting in the failed attempt to restore the Qing in July 1917. After failing to turn Duan and Feng Guozhang into responsible statesmen, he left politics.
[edit] Contributions to Journalism
[edit] As a Journalist
Lin Yutang (林語堂) once called Liang "the greatest personality in the history of Chinese journalism," while Joseph Levenson, author of Liang Ch'i-ch'ao and the Mind of Modern China, described Liang as "a brilliant scholar, journalist, and political figure."
Liang Qichao was the "most influential turn-of-the-century scholar-journalist," according to Levenson. Liang showed that newspapers and magazines could serve as an effective medium for communicating political ideas.
Liang, as a historian and a journalist, believed that both careers must have the same purpose and "moral commitment," as he proclaimed, "by examining the past and revealing the future, I will show the path of progress to the people of the nation." Thus, he founded his first newspaper, called the Qing Yi Bao (清議報), named after a student movement of the Han Dynasty.
Liang's exile to Japan allowed him to speak freely and exercise his intellectual autonomy. During his career in journalism, he edited two premier newspapers, Zhongwai Gongbao (中外公報) and Shiwu Bao (時務報). He also published his moral and political ideals in Qing Yi Bao (清議報) and New Citizen (新民叢報).
In addition, he used his literary works to further spread his views on republicanism both in China and across the world. Accordingly, he had become an influential journalist in terms of political and cultural aspects by writing new forms of periodical journals. Furthermore, journalism paved the way for him to express his patriotism.
[edit] Commitment to Journalistic Principles
One way to bring Liang's journalistic works into perspective is to consider if his works contained the "elements of journalism" put forth in Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel's book The Elements of Journalism. Although published 72 years after his death, The Elements of Journalism is still a useful tool in understanding what kind of journalist Liang was because, as stated in the book's introduction "...the same basic news values have held constant through time."
"Journalism's first obligation is to the truth."
The kind of "truth" Liang felt he was obligated to bring to his readers was more ideological than factual. New Citizen, of which Liang was editor in chief, was one of the first publications of its kind. Instead of simply reporting events to his readers, Liang was bringing them relevant new ideas and insights. In his newspapers and essays Liang spread his views on Democracy, Republicanism and Sovereignty throughout his readership in both China and overseas. To many of his readers these were new ideas. Although Democracy and Republicanism are not "truths" in the conventional sense of the word, they are what Liang truthfully believed to be the best systems for governing China. And his commitment in bringing these ideas to the citizens explained why Liang's work contained the first Element of Journalism.
"Its first loyalty is to citizens."
Liang asserted that a newspaper "is the mirror of society," "the sustenance of the present," and "the lamp for the future." He categorized newspapers into four types: the newspaper of an individual, of a party, of a nation, and of the world. Ultimately, his goal was to produce a "newspaper of the world", because as he proclaimed, "a newspaper of the world serves the interests of all humanity."
Liang was an advocate of democracy and republicanism. One can see this in his manifesto New People. His publications focused on educating his readers about on empowering the citizenry through these political ideas. With his writings he reached a large audience. His works helped educate his readers on ideas which they might have not been exposed to. Arguments have been put forth that through his work, Liang strove "to provide citizens with the information they need to be free and self governing" which is what Kovach and Rosenstiel name as the primary purpose of journalism.
"Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they cover."
Liang once declared, "How great is the force of the newspaper! And how grave is the duty of the newspaper!" Liang also believed that the "freedom of conscience, freedom of expression, and freedom of the press" were "indeed the mother of all civilization."
During the WuXu Reform Liang was highly critical of the Qing Dynasty and for his views he was exiled to Japan. However, this did not deter Liang as he continued to write articles and essays on how political change was needed in China. Despite political pressure Liang stood up to the Qing Dynasty and chose exile over being robbed of his literary and political freedoms. Through his exile he remained independent from the Qing Government which he often wrote about. This independence from those who wished to suppress him (mainly the Empress Cixi) allowed Liang to freely and objectively express his views and ideas on the political situation in China.
[edit] New Citizen Journal (Xinmin Congbao 新民叢報)
Liang produced a widely read biweekly journal called New Citizen (Xinmin Congbao 新民叢報), first published in Yokohama, Japan on February 8, 1902.
The journal covered many different topics, including politics, religion, law, economics, business, geography and current and international affairs. In the journal, Liang coined many Chinese equivalents for never-before-heard theories or expressions and used the journal to help communicate public opinion in China to faraway readers. Through news analyses and essays, Liang hoped that the New Citizen would be able to start a "new stage in Chinese newspaper history."
A year later, Liang and his co-workers saw a change in the newspaper industry and remarked, "Since the inauguration of our journal last year, there have come into being almost ten separate journals with the same style and design."
Liang spread his notions about democracy as chief editor of the New Citizen Journal. The journal was published without hindrance for five years but eventually ceased in 1907 after 96 issues. Its readership was estimated to be 200,000.
[edit] Role of the Newspaper
As one of the pioneers of Chinese journalism of his time, Liang believed in the "power" of newspaper, especially its influence over government policies.
Using Newspaper and magazine to communicate political ideas: Liang realised the importance of journalism's social role and supported the idea of a strong relationship between politics and journalism before the May Fourth Movement, (also known as the New Culture Movement). He believed that newspapers and magazines should serve as an essential and effective tool in communicating political ideas. He believed that newspapers did not only act as a historical record, but was also a means to "shape the course of history."
Press as a weapon in revolution: Liang also thought that the press was an "effective weapon in the service of a nationalist uprising." In Liang's words, the newspaper is a “revolution of ink, not a revolution of blood.” He wrote, "so a newspaper regards the government the way a father or elder brother regards a son or younger brother — teaching him when he does not understand, and reprimanding him when he gets something wrong." Undoubtedly, his attempt to unify and dominate a fast growing and highly competitive press market has set the tone for the first generation of newspaper historians of the May Fourth Movement.
Newspaper as an educational program: Liang was well aware that the newspaper could serve as an "educational program", and said, "the newspaper gathers virtually all the thoughts and expressions of the nation and systematically introduces them to the citizenry, it being irrelevant whether they are important or not, concise or not, radical or not. The press, therefore, can contain, reject, produce, as well as destroy, everything."
For example, Liang wrote a well known essay during his most radical period titled "The Young China" and published it in his newspaper Qing Yi Bao (清議報) on February 2, 1900. The essay established the concept of the nation-state and argued that the young revolutionaries were the holders of the future of China. This essay was influential on the Chinese political culture during the May Fourth Movement in the 1920s.
Weak press: However, Liang thought that the press in China at that time was considerably weak, not only due to lack of financial resources and conventional social prejudices, but also because "the social atmosphere was not free enough to encourage more readers and there was a lack of roads and highways that made it hard to distribute newspapers." Liang felt that the prevalent newspapers of the time were "no more than a mass commodity." He criticized that those newspapers "failed to have the slightest influence upon the nation as a society."
[edit] Literary career
Liang Qichao was both a traditional Confucian scholar and a reformist. Liang Qichao contributed to the reform in late Qing by writing various articles interpreting non-Chinese ideas of history and government, with the intent of stimulating Chinese citizens' minds to build a new China. In his writings, he argued that China should protect the ancient teachings of Confucianism, but also learn from the successes of Western political life and not just Western technology. Therefore, he was regarded as the pioneer of political friction.
Liang shaped the ideas of democracy in China, using his writings as a medium to combine Western scientific methods with traditional Chinese historical studies. Liang's works were strongly influenced by the Japanese political scholar Katō Hiroyuki (加藤弘之, 1836-1916), who used methods of social Darwinism to promote the statist ideology in Japanese society. Liang drew from much of his work and subsequently influenced Korean nationalists in the 1900s.
[edit] Historiographical Thought
Liang Qichao’s historiographical thought represents the beginning of modern Chinese historiography and reveals some important directions of Chinese historiography in the twentieth century.
For Liang, the major flaw of "old historians" (舊史家) was their failure to foster the national awareness necessary for a strong and modern nation. Liang's call for new history not only pointed to a new orientation for historical writing in China, but also indicated the rise of modern historical consciousness among Chinese intellectuals.
During this period of Japan's challenge in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95), Liang was involved in protests in Beijing pushing for an increased participation in the governnance by the Chinese people. It was the first protest of its kind in modern Chinese history. This changing outlook on tradition was shown in the historiographical revolution (史學革命) launched by Liang Qichao in the early twentieth century. Frustrated by his failure at political reform, Liang embarked upon cultural reform. In 1902, while in exile in Japan, Liang wrote New History (新史學), launching attacks on traditional historiography.
[edit] Translator
Liang was head of the Translation Bureau and oversaw the training of students who were learning to translate Western works into Chinese. He believed that this task was "the most essential of all essential undertakings to accomplish" because he believed Westerners were successful - politically, technologically and economically.
Philosophical Works: After having escaped Beijing and the government crackdown on anti-Qing protesters, Liang studied the works of Western philosophers of the Enlightenment period, namely Hobbes, Rousseau, Locke, Hume and Bentham, translating them and introducing his own interpretation of their works. His essays were published in a number of journals, drawing interest among Chinese intellects who had been taken aback by the dismemberment of China's formidable empire at the hands of foreign powers.
Western Social and Political Theories: In the early 20th century, Liang Qichao played a significant role in introducing Western social and political theories in Korea such as Social Darwinism and international law. Liang wrote in his well-known manifesto, New People (新民說):
- “Freedom means Freedom for the Group, not Freedom for the Individual. (…) Men must not be slaves to other men, but they must be slaves to their group. For, if they are not slaves to their own group, they will assuredly become slaves to some other.”
[edit] Poet and Novelist
Liang advocated reform in both the genres of poem and novel. Collected Works of Yinbingshi 《飲冰室合集》 are his representative works in literature which were collected and compiled into 148 volumes.
Liang gained his idea of calling his work as Collected Works of Yinbingshi from a sentence of a passage written by Zhuangzi (《莊子•人間世》). In the sentence, it stated that ‘Although I am suffering from the worry and coldness caused by my involvement in the politic, my heart is still warm and eager to continue my work.’ (“吾朝受命而夕飲冰，我其內熱與”). As a result, Liang called his workplace as Yinbingshi and addressed himself as Yinbingshi Zhuren (飲冰室主人), which literally means Host of Yinbing Room in order to present his idea that he was worrying about all the policial matters, so he would still try his best to reform the society by the effort of writings.
Liang also wrote fiction and scholarly essays on fiction, which included Fleeing to Japan after failure of Hundred Days' Reform (1898) and the essay On the Relationship Between Fiction and the Government of the People (論小說與群治之關係,1902). These novels emphasized modernization in the West and the call for reform.
[edit] Educator
In the late 1920s, Liang retired from politics and taught at the Tung-nan University in Shanghai and the Tsinghua Research Institute in Peking as a tutor. He founded Chiang-hsüeh she (Chinese Lecture Association) and brought many intellectual figures to China, including Driesch and Tagore. Academically he was a renowned scholar of his time, introducing Western learning and ideology, and making extensive studies of ancient Chinese culture.
During this last decade of his life, he wrote many books documenting Chinese cultural history, Chinese literary history and historiography. He also had a strong interest in Buddhism and wrote numerous historical and political articles on its influence in China. Liang influenced many of his students in producing their own literary works. They included Xu Zhimo, renowned modern poet, and Wang Li, an accomplished poet and founder of Chinese linguistics as a modern discipline.
[edit] Publications
- Introduction to the Learning of the Qing Dynasty (清代學術概論,1920)
- The Learning of Mohism (墨子學案,1921)
- Chinese Academic History of the Recent 300 Years (中國近三百年學術史,1924)
- History of Chinese Culture (中國文化史,1927)
- The Construction of New China
- The Philosophy of Laozi (老子哲學)
- The History of Buddhism in China (中國佛教史)
- Collected Works of Yinbingshi, Zhong Hwa Book Co, Shanghai 1936.
- Collected Works of Yinbingshi 饮冰室合集（全十二册）, Zhong Hwa Book Co, Beijing, 2003, 4th printing ISBN 7-101-00475-X /K.210
Essays collection Books one to five
- Book 1:-- original vol 1-9
- Book 2: vol 10-19
- Book 3: vol 20-26
- Book 4: vol 27-37
- Book 5: vol 38-45
Monographs collection Books six to twelve
- Book 6: vol 1-21
- Book 7: vol 22-29
- Book 8: vol 30-45
- Book 9: vol 46-72
- Book 10: vol 73-87
- Book 11: vol 88-95
- Book 12: vol 96-104
[edit] See also
[edit] External links
- Liang Qichao from a broad perspective
- CCTV article on the Chinese Revolution
- Book Review: Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and the Mind of Modern China
- Liang's former residence in Xinhui, Guangdong province (Photo)
- Democracy in China
- Kang Youwei-Liang's teacher
- Memorial hall for Liang Qichao at his former residence in north China's Tianjin City (Photo)
[edit] References
- Chang, Hao. Liang Ch'i-Ch'ao and Intellectual Transition in China. London: Oxford University Press, 1971.
- Chen, Chun-chi. Politics and the novel: a study of Liang Ch'i-Ch'ao's future of New China and his views on fiction. Ann Arbor: UMI dissertation services, 1998.
- Huang, Philip: Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and Modern Chinese Liberalism (1972). Seattle and London: University of Washington Press.
- Kovach, Bill and Rosenstiel, Tom. The Elements of Journalism. New York: Random House, 2001.
- Levenson, Joseph. Liang Ch'i-Ch'ao and the Mind of Modern China. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1970.
- Li Xiaodong [李暁東]: Kindai Chūgoku no rikken kōsō – Gen Puku, Yō Do, Ryō Keichō to Meiji keimō shisō [近代中国の立憲構想－厳復・楊度・梁啓超と明治啓蒙思想] (2005). Tokio: Hōsei daigaku shuppankyoku.
- Li Xisuo [李喜所] (ed.): Liang Qichao yu jindai zhongguo shehui wenhua [梁启超与近代中国社会文化] (2005). Tianjin: Tianjin guji chubanshe.
- Shin, Tim Sung Wook. The concepts of state (kuo-chia) and people (min) in the late Ch'ing, 1890 - 1907: the Case of Liang Ch'i Ch'ao, T'an S'su-t'ung and Huang Tsun-Hsien. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1986.
- Tang, Xiaobing. Global space and the Nationalist Discourse of Modernity" the Historical Thinking of Liang Qichao. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996.
- Wang, Xunmin. Liang Qichao zhuan. Beijing: Tuan jie chu ban she, 1998.
- Wu, Qichang. Liang Qichao zhuan. Beijing: Tuan jie chu ban she, 2004.
- Xiao, Xiaoxui. China encounters Western ideas (1895 - 1905): a rhetorical analysis of Yan Fu, Tan Sitong and Liang Qichao. Ann Arbor: UMI dissertation services, 1992.
- Yang Gang [杨钢] and Wang Xiangyi [王相宜] (ed.): Liang Qichao quanji [梁启超全集] (1999). Beijing: Beijing chubanshe.
- Yang, Xiao: Liang Qichao’s Political and Social Philosophy, in Chung-ying Cheng, Nicholas Bunnin (eds.), Contemporary Chinese Philosophy (Malden: Blackwell), 2002, pp. 17-36.
