Letter of marque
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A Letter of Marque and Reprisal is an official warrant or commission from a national government authorizing the designated agent to search, seize, or destroy specified assets or personnel belonging to a party which has committed some offense under the laws of nations against the assets or citizens of the issuing nation, and has usually been used to authorize private parties to raid and capture merchant shipping of an enemy nation.
The formal statement of the warrant is to authorize the agent to pass beyond the borders of the nation ("marque", meaning frontier), and there to search, seize, or destroy assets or personnel of the hostile foreign party ("reprisal"), not necessarily a nation, to a degree and in a way that was proportional to the original offense. It is considered a retaliatory measure short of a full declaration of war, and by maintaining a rough proportionality, has been intended to justify the action to other nations, who might otherwise consider it an act of war or piracy. As with a domestic search, arrest, seizure, or death warrant, to be considered lawful it needs to have a certain degree of specificity, to ensure that the agent does not exceed his authority and the intent of the issuing authority.
In the past, a ship operating under a letter of marque and reprisal was privately owned and was called a "private man-of-war" or "privateer". The French sometimes used the term lettre de course for its letters of marque, giving rise to the term corsair.
Letters of Marque were abolished in France by the April 16, 1856 Declaration of Paris, which was an annex to the 1856 Treaty of Paris that ended the Crimean War. The United States was one of the main states not to ratify the Declaration.
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[edit] Letter of Marque by nations
[edit] United Kingdom
Letters of marque were issued by England, after 1707 Great Britain, and after 1801 the United Kingdom until the signing of the Declaration of Paris in 1856. Famous recipients include Sir Francis Drake, Sir Henry Morgan, and William Kidd. To further illustrate the subtlety between piracy and privateering, both Henry Morgan and William Kidd were later brought up on charges of piracy by England.
[edit] France
Letters of Marque were given by France in a very selective manner. Under Napoleon, they covered a six-month period in case a war should come to an end. This meant that captains left port with several Letters of Marque, since expeditions rarely lasted less than a year. Once he returned to harbour, the captain had to hand the letter over to the naval authorities, who destroyed it, creating a greater sense of accountability and rarity.
[edit] United States of America
The United States Constitution (Art. I § 8) authorizes only Congress to issue Letters of Marque and Reprisal. One outstanding question is whether Congress can issue such a letter to the President, as an authorization for limited offensive warlike operations outside the territory of the United States. In 2002, Douglas Kmiec, then Dean of the Columbus School of Law at The Catholic University of America, testified before the U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary that:
| “ | Letters of Marque and Reprisal are grants of authority from Congress to private citizens, not the President. Their purpose is to expressly authorize seizure and forfeiture of goods by such citizens in the context of undeclared hostilities. Without such authorization, the citizen could be treated under international law as a pirate. Occasions where one's citizens undertake hostile activity can often entangle the larger sovereignty, and therefore, it was sensible for Congress to desire to have a regulatory check upon it. Authorizing Congress to moderate or oversee private action, however, says absolutely nothing about the President's responsibilities under the Constitution.[1] | ” |
Because the difference between a privateer and a pirate was a subtle (often invisible) one, in 1856 the issuance of Letters of Marque and Reprisal to private parties was banned for signatories of the Declaration of Paris. The United States was not a signatory to that Declaration and is not bound by it. During the 1861-65 American Civil War and the 1898 Spanish-American War, however, the United States issued statements that it would abide by the principles of the Declaration of Paris for the duration of the hostilities. (The Confederate States of America issued Letters of Marque and Reprisal during the Civil War.)
The issue of Marque and Reprisal was raised before congress by Rep. Ron Paul of Texas after the September 11, 2001 attacks.[2]
Examples of some famous privateers include:
[edit] In Science Fiction
Science fiction writer Poul Anderson, in his book The Star Fox, depicts a future where Letters of marque are revived and space privateers fight across the light years.
