Learning disability

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In the United States and Canada, the term learning disability (LD) is used to refer to a range of neurological conditions that affect one or more of the ways that a person takes in, stores, or uses information and shouldn't be made fun of. Learning disabilities are specific, not global, impairments. For example, a person could have an LD which inhibits her ability to understand written information though the same information, delivered orally, might present no problem. People with learning disabilities often have trouble processing information. Therefore, when asked a question, they cannot produce a quick response because it takes them more time to process the question, then find the answer. People with learning disabilities do not have mental retardation. An IQ test is given and when a severe discrepancy exist between the person's intellectual ability and his/her achievement levels, which is not primarily the result of: a visual impairment, motor impairment, hearing impairment, mental retardation, emotional disturbance; or enviornmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage a diagnoses may be made.

The term includes such conditions as dysgraphia (writing disorder), dyslexia (reading disorder), dyscalculia (mathematics disorder) and developmental aphasia.

In the United Kingdom, the term learning disability is used more generally to refer to developmental disability.

Learning disabilities affect all areas of life to the extent that the affected mode is used in that area. They are most often noticed in school settings, where certain learning modes are employed more than others, causing the weaknesses caused by the LD to stand out. Learning disabilities are usually identified by school psychologists through testing of intelligence, academics and processes of learning.

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[edit] Official definitions

The term "learning disability" was apparently first used and defined by Dr. Samuel Kirk (1962, cited in Streissguth, Bookstein, Sampson, & Barr, 1993, p.144). The term referred to a discrepancy between a child’s apparent capacity to learn and his or her level of achievement. A review of the LD classifications for 49 of 50 states revealed that 28 of the states included IQ/Achievement discrepancy criteria in their LD guidelines (Ibid., citing Frankenberger & Harper, 1987). However, the National Joint Committee for Learning Disabilities (NJCLD) (1981; 1985) preferred a slightly different definition:

is a generic term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual and presumed to be due to Central Nervous System Dysfunction. Even though a learning disability may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (e.g. sensory impairment, mental retardation, social, and emotional disturbance) or environmental influences (e.g. cultural differences, insufficient/inappropriate instruction, psychogenic factors) it is not the direct result of those conditions or influences.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (United States) defines a learning disability this way:

. . .[a] disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using spoken or written language, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations. . . .Learning disabilities include such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.

The Learning Disabilities Association of Ontario (Canada) defines LDs this way:

“Learning Disabilities” refers to a variety of disorders that affect the acquisition, retention, understanding, organization or use of verbal and/or non-verbal information. These disorders result from impairments in one or more psychological processes related to learning (a), in combination with otherwise average abilities essential for thinking and reasoning. Learning disabilities are specific not global impairments and as such are distinct from intellectual disabilities.
Learning disabilities range in severity and invariably interfere with the acquisition and use of one or more of the following important skills: oral language (e.g., listening, speaking, understanding), reading (e.g., decoding, comprehension), written language (e.g., spelling, written expression), mathematics (e.g., computation, problem solving). Learning disabilities may also cause difficulties with organizational skills, social perception and social interaction.
The impairments are generally life-long. However, their effects may be expressed differently over time, depending on the match between the demands of the environment and the individual’s characteristics. Some impairments may be noted during the pre-school years, while others may not become evident until much later. During the school years, learning disabilities are suggested by unexpectedly low academic achievement or achievement that is sustainable only by extremely high levels of effort and support.

Recently, a theory has been developed by many leading scholars in the academic and medical communities, suggesting that in fact, mental retardation is a choice. It is an argument debated by many, and, some side with this argument. However, it is still a theory, but, as recent evidence suggests, it is a very likely one.

Learning disabilities are due to genetic, other congenital and/or acquired neuro-biological factors. They are not caused by factors such as cultural or language differences, inadequate or inappropriate instruction, socio-economic status or lack of motivation, although any one of these and other factors may compound the impact of learning disabilities. Frequently learning disabilities co-exist with other conditions, including attentional, behavioural and emotional disorders, sensory impairments or other medical conditions.
For success, persons with learning disabilities require specialized interventions in home, school, community and workplace settings, appropriate to their individual strengths and needs, including: specific skill instruction; the development of compensatory strategies; the development of self-advocacy skills; appropriate accommodations.
NOTE: The term “psychological processes” describes an evolving list of cognitive functions. To date, research has focused on functions such as phonological processing; memory and attention; processing speed; language processing; perceptual-motor processing; visual-spatial processing; executive functions; (e.g., planning, monitoring and metacognitive abilities). (definition used with permission)

[edit] Alternate Perspective

Although the discrepancy model has dominated the school system for many years, there has been substantial criticism of this approach (eg, Aaron, 1995, Flanagan and Mascolo, 2005) among researchers. One reason for this has been that diagnosing on the basis of the discrepancy does not predict the effectiveness of treatment. Low academic achievers who do not have a discrepancy with IQ (ie their IQ scores are also low) appear to benefit from treatment just as much as low academic achievers who do have a discrepancy with IQ. An alternative approach has been proposed, which is known as Responsiveness to Intervention. Under this model, children who are having difficulties in school are identified early - in their first or second year after starting school. They then receive additional assistance such as participating in a reading remediation program. The response of the children to this intervention then determines whether they are designated as having a learning disability. Those few who still have trouble may then receive designation and further assistance. Sternberg (1999) has argued that early remediation can greatly reduce the number of children meeting diagnostic criteria for learning disabilities. He has also suggested that the focus on learning disabilities and the provision of accommodations in school fails to acknowledge that people have a range of strengths and weaknesses and places undue emphasis on academics by insisting that people should be propped up in this arena and not in music or sports

[edit] Contrast with other conditions

People with an IQ lower than 70 are usually characterized as having mental retardation (MR), mental deficiency, or cognitive impairment and are not included under most definitions of learning disabilities, because their learning difficulties are related directly to their low IQ scores. In contrast, learning disabled individuals have the potential to learn as much as other people of average intelligence, but something is preventing them from reaching that potential.

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is often studied in connection with learning disabilities, but it is not actually included in the standard definitions of learning disabilities. An individual with ADHD may struggle with learning, but he or she can often learn adequately once successfully treated for the ADHD. A person can have ADHD but not learning disabilities or have learning disabilities without having ADHD. The conditions can co-occur (see Comorbidity). In order to understand the difference, imagine that someone with a learning disability is affected in only one or a few areas. However, people with ADHD are often affected in all areas.

Research is beginning to make a case for ADHD's being included in the definition of LDs, since it is being shown to have a strong impact on "executive functions" required for learning (planning, organization, etc). This has not as yet affected any official definitions.

[edit] Types of learning disabilities

[edit] Areas of perception involved

Learning disabilities involve many areas of perception, which include:

  • Visual or Auditory Discrimination
    • perceiving differences in either sights or sounds
  • Visual or Auditory Closure
    • filling in missing parts of sights or sounds
  • Visual or Auditory Figure-ground Discrimination
    • focusing on an object and disregarding its background
  • Visual or Auditory Memory, either short-term or long-term
  • Visual or Auditory Sequencing
    • putting what is seen or heard in the right order
  • Auditory Association and Comprehension
    • relating what is heard to other things, including definitions of words and meanings of sentences
  • Spatial Perception
    • laterality (above vs. below, between, inside vs. outside) and one's position in space
  • Temporal Perception
    • processing time intervals in the range of milliseconds, critical to the development of speech processing
  • Non verbal Learning Disorder
    • Processing nonverbal cues in social interactions

[edit] Terminology and classification

Various terms are used to describe particular learning disabilities. A person can have one of them or more than one of them.

Some of them are as follows (codes provided are ICD-10 and DSM-IV, respectively.)

  • (F80.0-F80.2/315.31) Dysphasia/aphasia - Speech and language disorders
    • difficulty producing speech sounds (articulation disorder)
    • difficulty putting ideas into spoken form (expressive disorder)
    • difficulty perceiving or understanding what other people say (receptive disorder)
  • (F81.0/315.02) Dyslexia - the general term for a disability in the area of reading.
    • difficulty in phonetic mapping, where sufferers have difficulty with matching various orthographic representations to specific sounds
    • Some claim that dyslexia involves a difficulty with spatial orientation, which is stereotyped in the confusion of the letters b and d, as well as other pairs. In its most severe form, b, d, p and q, all distinguished primarily by orientation in handwriting, look identical to the dyslexic. However, there is no scientific evidence that dyslexia, or other learning difficulties, are related to vision or can be alleviated with visual exercises or colored glasses.[1]
    • Some claim that dyslexia involves a difficulty with sequential ordering, such that a person can see a combination of letters but not perceive them in the correct order. However, as with spatial orientation, there is no scientific evidence that dyslexia involves a visual problem.[1]
  • (F81.1/315.2) Dysgraphia - the general term for a disability in the area of physical writing. It is usually linked to problems with visual-motor integration or fine motor skills.
  • (F81.2-3/315.1) Dyscalculia - the general term for a disability in the area of math.
  • Dyspraxia - the general term for a disability with co-ordination and movement.

Various theories have been posited for the cause or causes of learning disabilities. Causes for the neurological impairments may involve:

  • alcohol abuse during pregnancy, which can result in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder and defects in brain structures from birth[2]
  • defects or errors in brain structure
  • drug abuse
  • poor nutrition
  • parents' genes
  • lack of parental involvement during early development stages in the infant
  • lack of communication between various parts of the brain
  • incorrect quantities of various neurotransmitters, or problems in the brain's use of these transmitters

Learning disabilities are a life-long condition, and are not "curable". Effective treatment involves multi-modal and appropriately tailored teaching and compensatory strategies/tools such as

  • special seating assignments
  • alternative or modified assignments
  • modified testing procedures
  • electronic spellers and dictionaries
  • word processors
  • talking calculators
  • audio books
  • Text-to-Speech (TTS) Software
  • note-takers
  • readers
  • proofreader

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b Learning Disabilities, Dyslexia, and Vision: A Subject Review A report from American Academy Of Pediatrics reporting the complete lack of evidence for a link between visual problems and learning difficulties.
  2. ^ Astley, S.J. (2004). Diagnostic Guide for Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: The 4-Digit Diagnostic Code. Seattle: University of Washington. Can be downloaded at http://depts.washington.edu/fasdpn
  1. Flanagan, D.P., & Mascolo, J.T. (2005). Pyschoeducational Assessment and Learning Disability Diagnosis. In D.P. Flanagan & P.L. Harrison (Eds). Contemporary Intellectual Assessment: Theories, Tests, and Issues. New York: The Guildford Press.
  2. Aaron, P.G., (1995) Differential diagnosis of reading disabilities. School Psychology Review 24(3), 345-360.
  3. Sternberg, R. J., & Grigorenko, E. L. (1999). Our labeled children: What every parent and teacher needs to know about learning disabilities. Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing Group

[edit] External links

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