La Comédie humaine

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La Comédie humaine is the title of Honoré de Balzac's (1799 – 1850) multi-volume collection of interlinked novels and stories depicting French society in the period of the Restoration and the July Monarchy (1815-1848).

Contents 1 Overview 1.1 Evolution of the Project 1.2 The "Avant-propos" 2 Sources of the "Comédie humaine" 2.1 Balzac and the historical novel 2.2 Balzac and the popular novel 2.3 Balzac and the fantastic 2.4 Balzac and Swedenborg 3 Themes of the "Comédie humaine" 3.1 France after the Revolution 3.2 Money and Power 3.3 Social Success 3.4 Paternity 3.5 Maternity 3.6 Women, society and sex 4 Structure of "La Comédie humaine" 4.1 Studies of Manners 4.1.1 Scenes From Private Life 4.1.2 Scenes From Provincial Life 4.1.3 Scenes From Parisian Life 4.1.4 Scenes From Political Life 4.1.5 Scenes From Military Life 4.1.6 Scenes From Country Life 4.2 Philosophical Studies 4.3 Analytical Studies 5 Characters 5.1 Recurring characters 5.2 Characters in a single volume 6 External links 7 References and Notes

[edit] Overview

The "Comédie humaine" consists of 95 finished works (stories, novels or analytical essays) and 48 unfinished works (or which exist only as titles).^[1] It does not include Balzac's 5 theatrical plays or his collection of humorous tales, the "Contes drolatiques" (1832-37). The title of the series is a reference to Dante's "Divine Comedy." While Balzac sought the comprehensive scope of Dante, his title indicates the worldly, human concerns of a realist novelist. The stories are placed in a variety of settings, with characters reappearing in multiple stories.

[edit] Evolution of the Project

The "Comédie humaine" was the result of a slow evolution. The first of Balzac's works were written without any global plan ("Les Chouans" is a historical novel; "La physiologie du mariage" is an analytical study of marriage), but by 1830, Balzac began to group his first novels ("Sarrasine", "Gobseck") into a series intitled "Scènes de la vie privée" ("Scenes from Private Life").

In 1833, with the publication of "Eugénie Grandet", Balzac envisioned a second series entitled "Scènes de la vie de province" (Scenes from Provincial Life). Most likely in this same year Balzac came upon the idea of having characters reappear from novel to novel, and the first novel to use this technique was "le Père Goriot" (1834-5).

In a letter written to Madame Hanska in 1834, Balzac decided to reorganize his works in three larger groups, allowing him (1) to integrate his ""La physiologie du mariage" into the ensemble and (2) to separate his most fantastic or metaphysical stories -- like "La Peau de chagrin" (1831) and "Louis Lambert" (1832) -- into their own "philosophical" section. The three sections were:

• Etudes de Moeurs au XIXe siècle (Studies of Manners in the 19th Century) - including the various "Scène de la vie..."
• Etudes philosophiques
• Etudes analytiques - including the "Physiology du mariage"

In this letter, Balzac went on to say that the "Etudes de Moeurs" would study the effects of society and touch on all genders, social classes, ages and professions of people. Meanwhile, the "Etudes philosophiques" would study the causes of these effects. Finally, the third "analytical" section would study the principles behind these phenomena. Balzac also explained that while the characters in the first section would be "individualités typisées" ("individuals made into types"), the characters of the "Etudes philosophiques" would be "types individualisés" (types made into individuals").

By 1836, the "Etudes de Moeurs" was already divided into six parts:

• "Scènes de la vie privée"
• "Scènes de la vie de province"
• "Scènes de la vie parisienne"
• "Scènes de la vie politique
• "Scènes de la vie militaire"
• "Scènes de la vie de campagne"

In 1839, in a letter to his publisher, Balzac mentioned for the first time the expression "Comédie humaine", and this title is in the contract he signed in 1841. The publication of the "Comédie humaine" in 1842 was preceded by an important preface or "avant-propos" describing his major principles and the work's overall structure (see below). For this edition, novels which had appeared in serial form were stricken of their chapter titles.

Balzac's intended collection was never finished. In 1845, Balzac wrote a complete catalogue of the ensemble which includes works he started or envisioned but never finished. In some cases, Balzac moved a work around between different sections as his overall plan developed; the catalogue given below represents that last version of that process.

[edit] The "Avant-propos"

In 1842, Balzac wrote a preface (an "Avant-propos") to the whole ensemble in which he explained his method and the collection's structure. This preface consists of the following:

Motivated by the work of biologists Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, Georges Cuvier and most importantly Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Balzac explains that he seeks to understand "social species" in the way a biologist would analyse "zoological species", and to accomplish this he intends to describe the interrealations of men, women and things. The importance of the woman is underlined by Balzac's contention that, while a biologist may gloss over the differences between a male and female lion, "in Society the woman is not simply the female of the man".

Balzac then gives an extensive list of writers and works that influenced him, including Walter Scott, François Rabelais and Miguel de Cervantes.

He then describes his writerly role as a "secretary" who is transcribing society's "history"; moreover, he posits that he is interested in something that no previous historian has attempted: a history of "moeurs" (customs, manners and morals). He also notes his desire to go behind the surface of events, to show the reasons and causes for social phenomena. Balzac then professes his belief in two profound truths -- Religion and Monarchy -- and his concern for understanding the individual in the context of his Family.

In the last half of his preface, Balzac explains the "Comédie humaine"'s different parts (which he compares to "frames" and "galeries"), and which are more or less the final form of the collection (see below).

[edit] Sources of the "Comédie humaine"

Because of its volume and complexity, the "Comédie humaine" touches on the major literary genres in fashion in the first half of the 19th century.

[edit] Balzac and the historical novel

The historical novel was a European phenomenon in the first half of the 19th century -- largely through the works of Walter Scott, James Fenimore Cooper and, in France, Alexandre Dumas, père and Victor Hugo. Balzac's first novel "Les Chouans" was inspired by this vogue and tells of the rural inhabitants of Brittany during the revolution with Cooper-like descriptions of their dress and manners.

Although the bulk of the "Comédie humaine" takes place during the Restoration and the July Monarchy, there are several novels which take place during the French Revolution and others which take place in the Middle Ages or the Renaissance, including "About Catherine de Medici" and "The Elixir of Long Life".

[edit] Balzac and the popular novel

Balzac's later works are decidedly influenced by the popular "roman feuilleton" (especially in the works of Eugène Sue which concentrate on depicting the secret worlds of crime and vice that hide below the surface of French society) and by the melodrama.

[edit] Balzac and the fantastic

Many of Balzac's shorter works have elements taken from the popular "roman noir" or gothic novel, but often the fantastic elements are used for very different purposes in Balzac's work.

His use of the magical ass' skin in "La peau de chagrin" for example becomes a metaphor for diminished male potency and a key symbol of Balzac's conception of energy and will in the modern world.

In a similar way, Balzac undermines the character of Melmoth the Wanderer in his "Melmoth Reconciled": Balzac takes a character from a fantastic novel (by Charles Robert Maturin) who has sold his soul for power and long life and has him sell his own power to another man in Paris... this man then sells this gift in turn and very quickly the infernal power is traded from person to person in the Parisian stock exchange until it loses any of its original power.

[edit] Balzac and Swedenborg

Several of Balzac's characters, particularly Louis Lambert, traverse mystical crises and/or develop syncretic spiritual philosophies about human energy and action that are largely modelled on the life and work of Emanuel Swedenborg (1688 – 1772). As depicted in his works, Balzac's spiritual philosophy suggests that individuals have a limited quantity of spiritual energy and that this energy is dissipated through creative or intellectual work or through physical activity (including sex), and this is made emblematic in his philosophical tale La Peau de chagrin, in which a magical wild ass' skin confers on its owner unlimited powers, but shrinks each time it is used.

[edit] Themes of the "Comédie humaine"

The following are some of the major themes that reoccur throughout the various volumes of the "Comédie humaine":

[edit] France after the Revolution

Balzac frequently bemoans the loss of a pre-Revolutionary society of honor which has now become -- especially after the fall of Charles X of France and the arrival of the July Monarchy -- a society dominated by money.

[edit] Money and Power

"At the origin of every fortune lies a crime" : this precept from the "Red Inn" reoccurs constantly in the "Comédie humaine", both as a biographical truth (Taillefer's murderous fortune, Goriot's deals with the Revolutionary army), and as a sign of French collective guilt at the horrors of the Revolution (and most notably by the death of the Louis XVI of France).

The other source of power is rank. People of good blood aspire to a title, while people with titles aspire to the peerage. The opening section of The Secrets of the Princess Cadignan provides an explanation of why the title of prince is not prevalent nor coveted in France (compared to contemporary Germany or Russia).

[edit] Social Success

Two young men dominate the "Comédie humaine": Lucien de Rubempré and Eugène de Rastignac. Both are talented but poor youths from the provinces, both attempt to achieve greatness in society through the intercession of women and both come into contact with Vautrin, but only Rastignac succeeds while Lucien de Rubempré ends his life by his own hand in a jail in Paris. The difference in outcome is partly explained by Balzac's views on heredity: Rastignac comes from a noble family, while only Rubempré mother comes from a noble family (he had to obtain royal permission to use his mother's family name instead of his father's name Chardon). This deficit is compounded by the fact that his mother had not only married a commoner far beneath her in rank, but she had also performed menial labour to support herself when her husband died.

Another contrast is between Emile Blondet and Raoul Nathan. Both are multi-talented men-of-letters. Blondet is the natural son of the prefect of Alencon and is is described as witty but lazy, incurably hesitant, non-partisan, a political atheist, a player of the game of political opinions (along with Rastignac), having the most judicious mind of the day. He marries Madame de Montcornet and eventually becomes a prefect. Nathan is described as half-Jewish and possessing a second-rate mind. Nathan succumbs to the flattery of unscrupulous financiers and does not see that they are prepared to bankrupt him to achieve their purposes. Blondet sees what is happening but does not enlighten Nathan. The downfall drives Nathan to attempt suicide by the method of "any poor work-girl". He then sells out to the government of the day (on Blondet's advice) to secure an income, and returns to living with the actress/courtesan Florine. In the end he accepts the cross of the Legion of Honour (which he formerly satirised) and becomes a defender of the doctrine of heredity.

[edit] Paternity

The Comédie humaine frequently portrays the complex emotional, social and financial relationships between fathers and their children, and between father-figures and their mentors, and these relationships are metaphorically linked as well with issues of nationhood (the king as father, regicide), nobility (bloodlines, family names), history (parental secrets), wealth (the origin of parental fortunes, doweries) and artistic creation (the writer or artist as father of the work of art). Father Goriot is perhaps the most famous -- and most tragic -- of these father figures, but in Le Père Goriot, Eugène de Rastignac also encounters two other paternal figures, Vautrin and Taillefer, whose aspirations and methods define different paternal paths. Other significant fathers in the series include Eugénie Grandet's abusive and money-hoarding father and César Birotteau, the doomed capitalist.

[edit] Maternity

At one end of the scale we have 100% maternal involvement - as depicted by the upbringing of the sisters de Granville (A Daughter of Eve) later Mesdames Felix de Vandenesse and du Tillet.

At the other end of the scale we have 0% maternal involvement - as depicted by the upbringing of Ursula Mirouet by four men: her half-uncle-in-law (an atheist and republican), the local priest (saintly), the district judge (wordly) and a retired soldier.

We are left in no doubt that it is the second option that produces what Balzac considers to be the ideal woman. Ursula is pious and prone to collapsing in tears at the slightest emotion.

[edit] Women, society and sex

The representation of women in the Comédie humaine in extremely varied -- spanning material from both the romantic and pulp traditions -- and includes idealized women (like Pauline in La Peau de chagrin or Eugénie Grandet), the tragic prostitute Esther Gobsek (Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes), the worldly daughters of Goriot and other women in society who can help their lovers advance, the masculine and domineering Cousine Bette, and the alluring and impossible love object (Foedora in La Peau de chagrin or the heroine of La fille aux yeux d'or). The latter category also includes several lesbian or bisexual characters.

[edit] Structure of "La Comédie humaine"

Balzac's final plan (1845) of the Comédie Humaine is as follows (projected works are not included):

[edit] Studies of Manners

[edit] Scenes From Private Life

• At the Sign of the Cat and Racket
• The Ball at Sceaux (Alternative Title: 'The Sceaux Ball')
• The Purse
• The Vendetta
• Madame Firmiani
• A Second Home
• Domestic Peace
• The Imaginary Mistress (Alternative Title: 'Paz')
• Study of a Woman
• Another Study of a Woman
• La Grand Breteche
• Albert Savarus
• Letters of Two Brides
• A Daughter of Eve
• A Woman of Thirty
• The Deserted Woman
• La Grenadiere
• The Message
• Gobseck
• A Marriage Contract
• A Start in Life
• Modeste Mignon
• Beatrix
• Honorine
• Le Colonel Chabert
• The Atheist's Mass
• The Commission in Lunacy
• Pierre Grassou

[edit] Scenes From Provincial Life

• Ursule Mirouet
• Eugénie Grandet
• The Celibates:
  • Pierrette
  • The Vicar of Tours
• A Bachelor's Establishment
• The Two Brothers
• The Black Sheep
• Parisians in the Country:
  • Gaudissart the Great, or The Illustrious Gaudissart
  • The Muse of the Department
• The Jealousies of a Country Town:
  • The Old Maid
  • The Collection of Antiquities
• The Lily of the Valley
• Lost Illusions (Les Illusions perdues):--I.
  • The Two Poets
  • A Distinguished Provincial at Paris, Part 1
• Lost Illusions (Les Illusions perdues):--II.
  • A Distinguished Provincial at Paris, Part 2
  • Eve and David

[edit] Scenes From Parisian Life

• Scenes from a Courtesan's Life (Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes):
  • Esther Happy
  • What Love Costs an Old Man
  • The End of Evil Ways
  • Vautrin's Last Avatar
• A Prince of Bohemia
• A Man of Business
• Gaudissart II.
• The Unwitting Actors or The Unwitting Comedians
• The Thirteen:
  • Ferragus
  • The Duchesse de Langeais
  • The Girl with the Golden Eyes
• Father Goriot (Le Père Goriot)
• The Rise and Fall of Cesar Birotteau
• The Firm of Nucingen
• The Secrets of a Princess or The Secrets of the Princess Cadignan
• The Government Clerks
• Bureaucracy
• Sarrasine
• Facino Cane
• Poor Relations:--I.
  • Cousin Bette (La Cousine Bette)
• Poor Relations:--II.
  • Cousin Pons
• The Middle Classes or The Lesser Bourgeoise

[edit] Scenes From Political Life

• The Gondreville Mystery or An Historical Mystery
• An Episode Under the Terror
• The Seamy Side of History: or The Brotherhood of Consolation:
  • Madame de la Chanterie
  • Initiated or The Initiate
• Z. Marcas
• The Member for Arcis or The Deputy for Arcis

[edit] Scenes From Military Life

• The Chouans
• A Passion in the Desert

[edit] Scenes From Country Life

• The Country Doctor
• The Country Parson or The Village Rector
• The Peasantry or Sons of the Soil

[edit] Philosophical Studies

• The Magic Skin (La Peau de chagrin)
• The Quest of the Absolute or The Alkahest
• Christ in Flanders
• Melmoth Reconciled
• The Unknown Masterpiece or The Hidden Masterpiece
• The Hated Son
• Gambara
• Massimilla Doni
• The Maranas or Juana
• Farewell
• The Conscript or The Recruit
• El Verdugo
• A Seaside Tragedy or A Drama on the Seashore
• The Red Inn
• The Elixir of Life
• Maitre Cornelius
• About Catherine de' Medici
  • The Calvinist Martyr
  • The Ruggieri's Secret
  • The Two Dreams
• Louis Lambert
• The Exiles
• Seraphita

[edit] Analytical Studies

• Physiology of Marriage
• Pathology of the Social Life

See also Category:Books of La Comédie Humaine.

[edit] Characters

Main article: List of characters of La Comédie humaine

[edit] Recurring characters

• Eugène de Rastignac - student, dandy, financier, politician (appears in 28 works)
• Lucien Chardon de Rubempré (the use of "de Rubempré" is contested) - journalist, parvenu
• Jacques Collin aka Abbé Carlos Herrera aka Vautrin aka Trompe-la-Mort - a criminal run away from forced labour
• Camusot - examining magistrate (The Collection of Antiquities, A Commission in Lunacy, Scenes from a Courtesan's Life; his father also appears in A Distinguished Provincial at Paris)
• Blondet, Emile - journalist, man of letters, prefect (The Collection of Antiquities, A Distinguished Provincial at Paris, Scenes from a Courtesan's Life). Compare and contrast with Raoul Nathan.
• Raoul Nathan - in 19 works, writer, politician
• Daniel d'Arthez
• Delphine de Nucingen née Goriot
• Roger de Granville
• Louis Lambert
• la duchesse de Langeais
• la comtesse de Mortsauf
• Jean-Jacques Bixiou - in 19 works, artist
• Joseph Bridau - in 13 works, painter
• Marquis de Ronquerolles - in 20 works
• la comtesse Hugret de Sérisy - in 20 works
• Félix-Amédée de Vandenesse
• Horace Bianchon - in 24 works, doctor
• des Lupeaulx - public servant

• Salon leaders: the Duchesse de Maufrigneuse, the Marquise d'Espard
• Dandies: Maxime de Trailles, Henri de Marsay
• Courtesans: La Torpille (Esther van Gobseck), Madame du Val-Noble
• Financiers: Ferdinand du Tillet, Frédérick de Nucingen, Keller brothers
• Actresses: Florine (Sophie Grignault), Coralie,
• Publishers/Journalists/Critics: Finot, Etienne Lousteau, Felicien Vernou
• Money lenders: Jean-Esther van Gobseck, Bidault aka Gigonnet

Characters who appear in several titles but only significantly in one of them.

• Birotteau
• Goriot

[edit] Characters in a single volume

• Raphaël de Valentin
• le baron Hulot
• Balthazar Claës
• Grandet
• le cousin Pons

[edit] External links

• Works by Honoré de Balzac at Project Gutenberg
• Comprehensive works with dates
• Full text of Repertory of the Comedie Humaine (an extensive reference of characters appearing in La Comédie humaine)

[edit] References and Notes

• Balzac. La Comédie humaine. Pierre Citron, ed. Preface by Pierre-Georges Castex. Paris: Seuil, 1965. 7 vols. ISBN 2-02-000726-6
• Rey, Pierre-Louis. La Comédie humaine. Collection: Profil d'une œuvre. Number 64. Paris: Hatier, 1979. ISBN 2-218-04589-3