Korean Buddhist sculpture

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pensive Bodhisattva Maitreya, National Treasure no. 83.

One of the major areas of Korean art is Korean Buddhist sculpture. China transmitted Buddhism, a religion originating in what is now India, to Korea in the late fourth century.^[1] The religion had a major effect on the Korean people, inspiring the production of temple architecture and art as first the aristocracy and then the common people began adopting the foreign religion.^[2] The Buddhist sculpture of Korea is indebted to prototypes developed in India, Central Asia, and China. However, from these influences, a distinctive Korean style formed.^[3] Korean Buddhas typically exhibit Korean" facial characteristics, were made with different casting and carving techniques and employed only some of the motifs that were developed earlier in Buddhist art. ^[4] Additionally, Korean artisans fused together different styles from different regions with their own tastes to form a native art tradition.^[5] These Korean stylistic developments were influential in the Asuka, Hakuho, and Tenpyo periods of Japanese art when Korea transmitted Buddhism to Japan in the sixth century.^[6]^[7] Some of the most finest and most technically accomplished Buddhist sculpture in East Asia were produced in Korea and Korean Buddhist sculpture remains an important form of art today.^[8]

1 Background information
2 History
3 Notes
4 References
5 See also
6 External links

[edit] Background information

Each individual Buddhist sculpture has various characteristics and attributes which art historians use as clues to determine when and where it was made. Sometimes a statue will have an inscription or contain a document which attests to when, where, and who made it. Sometimes, there are reliable archaeological records which state where a statue was excavated. However, when neither of these sources of information are available, scholars can still glean important information on an individual statue by its style, the particular iconography employed by the artist, and physical characteristics, such as the material used to make the statue, the percentage of metals used in an alloy, casting and carving techniques, and various other contextual clues.

Many of the Buddhist sculpture in Korea have not survived the vagaries of time and invasion. Those that have are typically small bronze votive images or sculpture carved in stone. Although wood and lacquer images were also created the earliest Korean wood sculpture that is still extant, not counting the Koryu-ji Maitreya, is a Goryeo true-image of a Buddhist monk from the early 10th century and Treasure no. 999. Gilt-bronze was a common material used for sculpture. However, because bronze was an expensive metal artisans begin using other materials. In Unified Silla, casters began using iron. Of further note is the abundance of granite on the Korean peninsula with many images carved from the living rock.

[edit] History

[edit] Three Kingdoms period (traditional 57 BCE-668 CE)

Buddhism first reached Korea during the Three Kingdoms of Korea period. The Ttuksom Buddha, named for the area of Seoul in which it was discovered, is the earliest statue of Buddha in Korea that has been discovered. Scholars date it to the fifth century. The five centimeter tall gilt-bronze statuette follows certain stylistic conventions originating in Ghandara (present-day Pakistan), and which were later adopted by China. The rectangular platform upon which the Buddha sits depicts two lions, a common symbol of Buddha. Additionally, it displays the dhyana mudra, a symbol of meditation common in early Chinese and Korean sculpture and which is notably absent in later Japanese sculpture. The figure also has a rectangular peg in the back of the head which indicates it once had an aureole. These stylistic similarities lead most scholars to conclude that the image is a Chinese import. However, the Buddha might be a Korean copy of a Chinese prototype. The discovery of the Ttuksom Buddha near a known Baekje settlement and first capital suggests the figure may be an example of Baekje sculpture. A very similar meditating Buddha discovered in the later Baekje capital of Buyeo supports this theory. Other scholars suggest that the figure may be a Goguryeo piece because of the close stylistic similarities the figure has with the northern dynastic art, a typical feature of early Goguryeo sculpture.

[edit] Goguryeo (37 BCE-668)

One of the oldest surviving Korean Buddhas discovered so far is the Yon'ga Buddha. (Figure 1). The Buddha, the only one of a thousand that has survived, gets its name from the inscription on its back that mentions a previously unknown Goguryeo reign period. (Figure 2). While it was discovered in Uiryong in Gyeongsangnam-do, former Silla territory, the inscription clearly states the statue was cast in Nangnang (present-day Pyongyang), Goguryeo. The statue is valuable because it has a clear date of manufacture, 539, and its provenance. Additionally, it shows that images from Goguryeo were sent to Silla. The rather crude carvings on the mandorla of the Buddha exhibits motion and dynamism typical of Goguryeo art. The figure also exhibits the "fear-not" mudra in its upraised right hand while the left hand displays the "wish-granting" mudra. Both mudras are typical of early Korean standing Buddhist sculpture. National Treasure no. 119 also displays other attributes common to Goguryeo Buddhas including lean faces, prominent protrubances on the head (Sanskrit: ushnisa), large hands disproportionate to the body, an emphasis on the front of the figures, "fishtail" flaring of the robes, and flame imagery on the halo.^[9]^[10] The prototype of this buddha derives from the Tuoba Tartars of the Northern Wei dynasty. A Northern Wei image at the Tokyo National Museum, , illustrates the close connection the Goguryeo Kingdom located in the northern Korean peninsula and Manchuria had with the Northern Wei, which occupied northern China. Other examples of Northern Wei prototypes can be found at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, [4], and an Eastern Wei Buddha at the University of Pennsylvania Museum. The former is dated to 524 while the latter is dated to 536.

The provenance of the bronze standing Bodhisattva is unknown but based on common stylistic similiarities (such as the fishtail draperies, the large hands, and the two incised lines on the chest indicating an undergarment (southern Chinese convention)) with the Yon'ga Buddha, most scholars believe that it is originally from Goguryeo. (Fig. 3.). The Bodhisattva is only modeled in the front, another Northern Wei characteristic, and the unfinished back has several pegs. These pegs have led some scholars to believe that this Boddhisattva was once a central figure in a single-mandorla triad.

Single-mandoral triads were apparently made in great abundance because many of them have survived.

The stiffness of early Goguryeo sculpture is sometimes attributed to the harsh climate of the kingdom. ^[11] The replacement of the typically lean face of Goguryeo sculpture with plumper versions and a gentler depiction of the robes may reflect the conquering of the Han River valley and the introduction of gentler climes or these changes in style may simply reflect, directly or indirectly, the influence of Baekje style. ^[12] This gentler depiction of the face is exemplified by the ceramic Bodhisattva found at the Wono-ri site. (Fig. 1.). Additionally, it has been theorized that this softer depiction may be come from Goguryeo contacts with southern Chinese dynasties.

Unfortunately, no Goguryeo sculpture from the 7th century has survived or has yet been discovered. Two pieces that have been attributed to the Balhae state may actually be from Goguryeo.

Goguryeo

Fig. 1. Standing Buddha, Goguryeo, 539. Gilt bronze, h. 16.3 cm. National Museum of Korea, National Treasure no. 119.

Fig. 2. Back view of the Yon'ga Buddha.

Fig. 3. Standing Bodhisattva, Goguryeo(?), mid-6th c. Gilt bronze, h. 15 cm. National Museum of Korea, Treasure No. 333.

Fig. 4. Standing Bodhisattva, Goguryeo, first half of the 6th c. Ceramic, h. 17 cm. National Museum of Korea.

[edit] Baekje (trad. 18 BCE-660)

Baekje sculpture, influenced primarily by the Southern Dynasties of China, are "particularly distinctive" with their gentle smiles, "harmonious proportions", and tend to exude a sense of warmth and humanity. ^[13] These attributes, typical of Baekje sculpture, are sometimes attributed to the warm climate and fertile environment the kingdom was situated in. [5].

Two of the most famour Buddhist sculptures from Baekje are a seated Buddha and standing Bodhisattva now at the Buyeo National Museum. [6]. Both were excavated from Kunsu-ri (Gunsu-ri). While Baekje had diplomatic contacts with both the northern and southern dynasties of China during this period, dynasties, souch as Southern Liang art were particularly influential. Northern dynastic styles, probably also transmitted through Goguryeo can be seen in single-mandorla triads that have survived in both kingdoms. The Kunsu-ri seated Buddha displays the dhyana mudra, showing its early influences. However, the Buddha's rounded face is relaxed and smiling. These features would become a mainstay of Baekje sculpture. The standing Kunsu-ri Bodhisatta also exhibits attributes very different from their Eastern Wei prototypes, such as an emphasis on the headgear and broad face and different iconographic styles employed.

Of note is the strong connection between the Baekje Korea and Yamato Japan during this time period. Many extant Baekje sculpture survive in Japan today. This image, a single-mandorla triad, [7], is Horyuji Treasure no. 143. It is a particularly fine example of Baekje sculpture in Japan from the sixth or seventh century. ^[14] The Korean origins of the statue are based on the round and warm faces typical of Baekje style, the absence of an air of solemnity and austerity typical of the Tori style, the casting technique which uses nails instead of spacers, and the intaglio effect on the bronze the artisan used to make the eyebrows, a typical Korean technique.

Other possible examples of Baekje sculpture in Japan are the hidden image at Zenkoji, [8], and the Kudara Kannon (Baekje Avalokiteshvara) at Horyuji ([9], [10]).

Pensive images were also popular in Baekje. Early pensive statues have a characteristic parabolic drapery, a fragment of such a statue is held at the Buyeo National Museum, and style can be found in Baekje images now in Japan. A later pensive image, now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art is a particulary fine example of Baekje sculpture.

Baekje

Standing Buddha and attendants, Baekje, 6th-7th c. Gilt bronze. Tokyo National Museum, Dedicated Horyu-ji Treasure no. 143.

Semi-seated Bodhisattva Maitreya, Baekje, 7th c. Gilt bronze. Metropolitan Museum of Art.

[edit] Silla (trad. 57 BCE-668)

Buddhism was officially accepted by the Silla court only in 527 or 528 although the religion was known to its people earlier due to the efforts of monks from Goguryeo in the fifth century. [11]. [12]. The late acceptance of the religion is often attributed to the geographic isolation of the kingdom, the lack of easy access to China, and the conservatism of the court. However, once Buddhism was accepted by the court, it received wholesale state sponsorship. One example of lavish state support is Hwangnyongsa, a temple which housed an approximately 5 meter tall Buddha. [13]. The statue was one of the kingdom's three great treasures and was destroyed by the Mongols after surviving for 600 years. Excavations have revealed several small piecies of the Buddha and huge foundation stones that are evidence of the great size of the statue. [14].

During the Three Kingdoms period the cult of the Maitreya was particularly influential. In India, the historical Buddha,Shakyamuni, was depicted in a princely pose called variously the pensive posture, seated pendant, or semi-seated in contemplation. This pose was adapted by various Chinese cultures to the iconography of the Maitreya, the future Buddha who will return to earth one day to usher in a new world. This example is from the Northern Qi: . In Korea, the technically difficult pensive posture was adapted by all three kingdoms and transformed into a particularly Korean style. [15]. In China, the pensive Maitreya iconography was typically a subordinate image in a triad or was often small in size. In Korea, particularly exemplified by Silla examples, the pensive Maitreya became a central figure of worship with several heroic size figures surviving.

Sillan kings style themselves as the ruler of a Buddha land with the King as the symbol of Buddha. This religious adaptation is also seen in the Hwarang corp, a group of aristocratic youth who were groomed for leadership in the endless wars on the peninsula. The leader of the Hwarang was believed to be the incarnation of Maitreya. Maitreya, it was believed, would ascend to earth as the future Buddha in 56 million years. This believe was incorporated in Silla's desire to unite the peninsula.

Two of the most famous pensive Maitreyas are National Treasure no. 78 and National Treasure no. 83. Both figures were said to have been found in Silla territory and are dated to the late sixth or early seventh century. National Treasure no. 78 shows the influence of Northern and Eastern Wei syles. Although the style employed is more archaic, it is believed that the casting technique, based on X-ray studies, suggests that it is the older piece because of the sophistication of the casting, some areas are no thicker than 1 millimeter. National Treasure no. 83, exhibiting stylistic influence from Northern Qi, for a time, was believed to be from Baekje. However, recent research indicates, based on drapery studies, suggests that the statue was produced in Silla and scholarly consensus seems to agree on that point. A similar stone pensive statue in Silla territory also indicates a Silla origin. National Treasure no. 83 is also important because it illustrates the close connection between Korea and Japan during this period. Koryu-ji's Miroku Bosatsu, a Japanese national treasure, is now believed to be of Silla manufacture based on the use of red pine, a wood used for Korean sculpture, ancient Japanese records, the use of Korean carving techniques, and because the two images are almost identical in appearance.

Some Sillan figures show the influence of Northern Qi style. This can be seen in the tall columnar Buddha and a child-like Buddha which has many similarities to recently discovered Buddha sculptures from Longxingsi, Shandong in China. The child-like Buddha shows typical Sillan sculptural traits that are often found in stone work, namely the large head and youthful, innocent air of the Buddha. Additionally, the iconographic details of the statue, not found in Chinese sculpture, suggests that Silla had direct contact with artists from southern India and Sri Lanka.

A particular icongraphic innovation originating in Silla and found elsewhere only in Japan is the infant Buddha. The infant Buddha raises one arm towards the sky and the other to the ground symbolizing that nothing is Buddha's equal.

Silla

Yangp'yong Buddha, Silla, second half of the 6th c. or first half of the 7th c. Gilt bronze, h. 30cm. National Museum of Korea, National Treasure no. 186.	Semi-seated Bodhisattva Maitreya, Silla, 6th c. Gilt bronze, h. 28.5 cm. National Museum of Korea, Treasure no. 331.	Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, Silla, 6th c. Gilt bronze, h. 20 cm. National Museum of Korea, National Treasure no. 127.	Semi-seated Bodhisattva Maitreya, second half of the 6th c. Gilt bronze, h. 83.2 cm. National Treasure no. 78. National Museum of Korea, National Treasure no. 78.
Side view of a Semi-seated Bodhisattva Maitreya, Silla, late 6th or early 7th c. Gilt bronze, h. 93.5 cm. National Treasure no. 83. National Museum of Korea, National Treasure no. 83.			Front view of National Treasure no. 83.
Standing Bhaisajyaguru, Silla, first half of 7th c. Gilt bronze, h. 31 cm. National Museum of Korea.	Semi-seated Bodhisattva Maitreya, Silla, first half of 7th c. Gilt bronze, h. 27.5 cm. National Museum of Korea.	Semi-seated Bodhisattva Maitreya, Silla, early 7th c. Gilt bronze, h. 17.1 cm. National Museum of Korea.

[edit] Unified Silla (668-935)

Unified Silla Buddhist sculpture exemplifies the international style which influenced most Asian art of the time. [16]. After the destruction of the Baekje Kingdom, elements of Baekje style and a strong Tang Chinese influence affected Unified Silla art. The Korean Buddhist sculpture of this period can be identified by the "undeniable sensuality" of the "round faces and dreamy expressions" and "fleshy and curvaceous bodies" of extant figures. [17]. Buddhism was heavily sponsored and promoted by the state and this drove the production of Buddhist art. During this period too, the popularity of Vairocana and the Medicine Buddha and their associated motifs became extremely popular. Korean Buddhist sculpture arguably reached a peak with the construction of Seokguram Grotto, now a UNESCO World Heritage site. The central Buddha and the many surrounding figures display the strong skill that sculptors had with granite, a coarse but abundant stone used in many sculptures in Korea. However, the political instability and weakened monarchy of the late eighth century seems to have had an effect on artisans as Buddhist sculpture began to become formulaic and lose vitality in the use of line and form. [18]. [19]. During the later days of Unified Silla, iron was substituted as a cheaper alternative to bronze and was used to cast many Buddhas.

Unified Silla (668-935)

National Museum of Korea.	National Museum of Korea.	Standing Bodhisattva Maitreya (left), 719. Granite, h. 1.83 m. National Museum of Korea, National Treasure no. 81. Standing Amitabha (right), 719. Granite, h. 1.74 m. National Museum of Korea, National Treasure no. 82.	Seated Buddha, first half of the 8th c. Granite, h. 3.26 m. Seokguram, National Treasure no. 24.
Seated Vairocana, early 9th c. Gilt bronze, h. 1.77 m. Bulguksa, National Treasure no. 26.		Standing Bhaisajyaguru, 9th c. Gilt bronze, h. 29.2 cm. National Museum of Korea.	Standing Bhaisajyaguru, middle 8th c. 1.77 m. Gyeongju National Museum, National Treasure no. 28.
Standing Vairocana, 9th c. Gilt bronze; 52.8 cm. Tokyo National Museum, Ogura Collection.	Seated Vairocana, 9th c. Stone. National Museum of Korea.	Seated Vairocana, late 9th century. Iron, h. 112 cm. National Museum of Korea.	Seated Buddha, early 10th c. Cast iron, h. 150 cm. National Museum of Korea.

[edit] Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392)

The Goryeo Dynasty succeded Unified Silla as ruler of the Korean peninsula. Like their predecessors, the Goryeo court lavishly sponsored Buddhism and Buddhist arts. The early phase of Goryeo art is characterized by the waning but influential effect of Unified Silla prototypes, the discarding of High Tang style, and the incorporation of regionally distinictive styles which reflected the influence of local aristocrats who had grown powerful during the declining days of Unified Silla and also reflects the fact that the capital was moved from southeastern Korea to Kaegyong (now modern-day Kaesong).

The bronze life-size image of King Taejo, the founder of the Goryeo Dynasty is technically not a Buddhist sculpture (Figure 1). However, the similarities of the statue to earlier bronze images of the Buddha, such as the elongated ears, a physical attribute of the Buddha, is suggestive of the relationship the royalty had with the religion.

One example of the lingering influence of Unified Silla art is the Seated Sakyamuni Buddha at the National Museum of Korea which can be dated to the tenth century (Figure 2). [20]. This statue is stylistically indebted to the central figure at Seokguram and some scholars suggest that the statue is from the Great Silla period. Both Buddhas employ the same "earth-touching" mudra which was first popularized in Korea by the Seokguram image. The fan-shaped folding of cloth between the legs of the Buddha, the way the clothing on the image was depicted, and the "cross-legged seated posture" are all typical of Unified Silla sculpture. [21]. The Buddha is the largest iron Buddha surviving in Korea. It was cast in multiple pieces and today one can see the different seams where the statue was peiced together. In the past the statue would have been covered in lacquer or gilt to hide the joints. Interestingly, the bottom of the nose, the ends of the ears, and the hands are reproductions and not part of the original statue.

The Eunjin Mireuk is example of early Goryeo sculpture demonstrating the rise of regional styles and the abandoning of a strict interpretation of the standard iconography of Buddhist images (Figure 3). (Kim 286). The statue is believed to be a representation of the Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, the Bodhisattva of Mercy, although it is popularly known as Maitreya. The statue is over 18 meters tall and took over 30 years to complete. [22], (Kim 286). The statue is valuable because it demonstrates developments unique to Chungcheong-do and Gyeonggi-do. [23]. Additionally, some scholars posit that these huge stones may have once been originally for Shamanistic practices and later subsumed into a Buddhist image.

Few reliably dated Buddhist sculptures from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries have survived and so "it is diffucult to assess the production of sculpture related to" the rising populartiy of Seon Buddhism (Ch. Chan, Jp. Zen) and its association with the ruling military family of the mid-Goryeo period. (Kim 286).

The seated Avalokiteshvara in "royal ease" pose from the 14th century at the National Museum of Korea shows the stylistic influence of Tibetan Lamaist Buddhism which was favored by the Yuan Mongol court (Figure 4). (Kim 287-288). However, some scholars have suggested this statue is an import.

Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392)

Figure 1. Statue of King Taejo, 10th c. Bronze, 143.5 cm. North Korea.	Figure 2. Seated Sakyamuni Buddha, 10th c. Cast iron, 2.88 m. National Museum of Korea, Treasure no. 332.	Seated Buddha, early 10th c. Cast iron, h. 132 cm. National Museum of Korea.	Figure 3. Eunjin Mireuk, 931-968. Stone, h. 18.12 m.
1000-armed Avalokiteshvara, 10th-11th c. Cast iron, h. 58 cm. Musee Guimet.	Head of Buddha, 10th-11th c. Cast iron, h. 37.4 cm. National Museum of Korea.	Figure 4. Seated Avalokiteshvara, 14th century. Gilt bronze, h. 38.5 cm. National Museum of Korea.

[edit] Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910)

Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910)

National Museum of Korea.

Vairocana Buddha (middle figure), 1628. Gilt bronze, h. 12.6 cm. Monk (left), 1628. Giltbronze, h. 9.7 cm. National Museum of Korea.

Seated Buddha. Musee Guimet.

[edit] Modern

Modern

Standing Buddha, 20th century. Gilt bronze, h. 33 m. Beopjusa.

Seated Buddha, 20th century. Bronze. Seoraksan.

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

AsianInfo.org: Korean Scultpure. Retrieved on 2007-03-08.

Best, Jonathan W. (1990). "Early Korea's Role in the Stylistic Formulation of the Yumedono Kannon, a Major Monument of Seventh-Century Japanese Buddhist Sculpture". Korea Journal 30 (10): 13-26. .

Best, Jonathan W., "King Mu and the Making and Meanings of Miruksa", in Buswell, Robert E., Religions of Korea in Practice, Princeton Univeristy Press, 2007, ISBN 0-691-11347-5.

Best, Jonathan W. (2003), "The Transmission and Transformation of Early Buddhist Culture in Korea and Japan", in Richard, Naomi Noble, Transmitting the Forms of Divinity: Early Buddhist Art from Korea and Japan, Japan Society, ISBN 0-913304-54-9.

Chin, Hong-sup (1964). "Simplicity and Grandeur: Sculpture of Koryo Dynasty". Korea Journal 4 (10): 21-25. .

Fukuoka Art Museum: Standing Buddha. Retrieved on 2007-03-08.

Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea: A Religious History. UK: Routledge. ISBN 070071605X.

Hammer, Elizabeth & Judith G. Smith, ed. (2001), The Arts of Korea: A Resource for Educators, New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, ISBN 0-58839-009-8.

Hiromitsu, Washizuka; Youngbok Park & Woo-bang Kang et al. (2003), Transmitting the Forms of Divinity: Early Buddhist Art from Korea and Japan, New York: Japan Society, ISBN 0-913304-54-9.

Kim, Lena. Buddhist Sculpture. Indiana University: East Asian Studies Center. Retrieved on 2007-03-08.

Kim, Lena, "Early Korean Buddhist Sculptures and Related Japanese Examples: Iconographic and Stylistic Comparisons", in Richard, Naomi Noble, Transmitting the Forms of Divinity: Early Buddhist Art from Korea and Japan, Japan Society, 2003, ISBN 0-913304-54-9.

Kim, Lena, "Tradition and Transformation in Korean Buddhist Sculpture", in Smith, Judith G., Arts of Korea, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1998, ISBN 0-87099-850-1.

Kim, Won-yong (1960). "An Early Gilt-bronze Seated Buddha from Seoul". Artibus Asiae 23 (1): 67-71. .

Kuno, Takeshi, ed. (1963), A Guide to Japanese Sculpture, Tokyo: Mayuyama & Co.

Kwak, Dong-seok, "Korean Gilt-Bronze Single Mandorla Buddha Triads and the Dissemination of East Asian Sculptural Style", in Richard, Naomi Noble, Transmitting the Forms of Divinity: Early Buddhist Art from Korea and Japan, Japan Society, 2003, ISBN 0-913304-54-9.

Lee, Junghee (1993). "The Origins and Development of the Pensive Bodhisattva Images of Asia". Artibus Asiae 53 (3/4): 311-353. .

Lee, Soyoung. Korean Buddhist Sculpture (5th-9th century A.D.). The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved on 2007-03-08.

McCallum, Donald F. (March 1982). "Korean Influence on Early Japanese Buddhist Sculpture". Korean Culture 3 (1): 22-29. .

McCallum, Donald F. (2001). "The Earliest Buddhist Statues in Japan". Artibus Asiae 61 (2): 149-188. .

Pak, Youngsook & Roderick Whitfield (2002), Handbook of Korean Art: Buddhist Sculpture, Seoul: Yekyong, ISBN 89-7084-192-X

Rowan, Diana Pyle (1969). "The Yakushi Image and the Shaka Trinity of the Kondo, Horyuji: A Study of Drapery Problems". Artibus Asiae 31 (4): 241-275. .

Saburosuke, Tanabe, "From the Stone Buddhas of Longxingsi to Buddhist Images of Three Kingdoms Korea and Asuka-Hakuho Japan", in Richard, Naomi Noble, Transmitting the Forms of Divinity: Early Buddhist Art from Korea and Japan, Japan Society, 2003, ISBN 0-913304-54-9.

Sadao, Tsuneko S. & Stephanie Wada (2003), Discovering the Arts of Japan: A Historical Overview, Tokyo: Kondansha International, ISBN 4-7700-2939-X

Shuya, Onishi, "The Monastery Koruyji's "Crowned Maitreya" and the Stone Pensive Bodhisattva Excavated at Longxingsi", in Richard, Naomi Noble, Transmitting the Forms of Divinity: Early Buddhist Art from Korea and Japan, Japan Society, 2003, ISBN 0-913304-54-9.