Kambojas in Kautiliya's Arthashastra

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The Kambojas, an ancient Ksatriya clan of Indo-Iranian affinities, find numerous references in a host of ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts including the Sama Veda, Atharvaveda, Yajurveda, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranic texts, Yasaka's Nirukta, Mahabhashya of Patanjali, Katyayana’s Varttika (an elaboration on Panini's grammar), Buddhist Jatakas, Jaina Canons, numerous ancient plays as also in many ancient inscriptions etc. Besides, the Kambojas also find references in Arthashastra of Achariya Kautiliya-- also known as Vishnu Gupta and Chankya, whom tradition attests to have been the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya (fourth/third Century BCE). Besides attesting splendid war horses of the Kambojas, their Kshatriya Srenis (Corporations of warriors) as well as their "Nation-in-arms" or martial republican constitution (Varta-Satropajivinah), this book of political realism also attests a kind of silver called Kambuka, extracted from mountain Kambu located in Andrab in Badakshan, which region had formed a part of ancient Parama Kamboja.

Contents

[edit] Kamboja Horses in Arthashastra

Arthashastra lists war horses from several countries including the Kamboja and puts the Kamboja horses at the head of the list of the best horses.[1]

Horses of Chandra Gupta's cavalry, considering its numerical strength, had to be recruited from various countries which are thus named by Kautiliya (II.13.10):

"The (horse) breed of Kámbhoja, Sindhu, Aratta, and Vanáyu countries are the best; those of Báhlíka, Pápeya, Sauvira, and Taitala, are of middle quality; and the rest ordinary (avaráh)".[2]

Thus, the war horses of Kamboja have been placed at the head of the list of the best horses, which therefore, clearly attests that Kamboja horses were the superiormost breed for cavalry.[3]

[edit] Kamboja Republics of Arthashastra

Arthashastra also attests for us that the Kambojas had followed republican constitution of governanace.

Kautiliya lists two types of Samghas or Republics in his Arthashastra viz.:

(1). Raja.shabd.opajivin Sanghas i.e those living by the title of Raja like Licchivika, Vrjika, Mallaka, Madraka, Kukura, Kuru and Panchala etc. (They had the provision for king consul in their constitution).

(2) Varta.sastr.opajivin Samghas i.e the corporations of warriors (Kshatriya Srenis) of the Kambojas and Surastras living by agriculture, trade, cattle-breeding and wielding weapons. (They did not have the provision for king-consul in their constitution. In other words, they were pure democracies)[4]

e.g.: "The corporations of warriors (Kshatriya shrenis) of the Kamboja and Surashtra and some other nations live by agtriculture, trade and by wielding weapons. The corporations of Lichchhivika,Vrijika, Mallaka, Mudraka, Kukura, Kuru, Pánchála and others live by the title of a Rája " .[5][6][7][8][9][10][11]

[edit] Styled as Nation-in-arms or Martial Republics

Scholars have styled the Varta-Sastropajivin Samghas of the Kambojas and Surashtras as Nations-in–arms or Martial Republics[12]

It is also notable that Kautiliya contrasts the "Varta.sastropajivinah" Samghas (Martial Republics) with the "Raja.shabd.opajivinah" Samghas (King-Council Republics). The "varta-Sastropajivinah" Samghas (or Martial Republics) of Kautiliya are equivalent to the Ayudhajivinah Samghas of Panini[13] or the Yodhajivas of Pali literature.[14][15]

[edit] Characteristics of Nation-in-Arms Republics

Contrasted with the King Consul Republics (Raja-shabdopajivinah), the Nation-in-arms or Military Republics of the Kambojas and Surashtras had no King-Consul -- in other words, they were pure democracies as contrasted to Oligarchies. They especially emphasized on their citizens the duty to acquire military skill. The whole community was their army and therefore, immeasurably superior to the hired levies of monarchies or the army of "Raja-shabdopajivinah Samghas". And when they formed an offensive or defensive league, they were considered virtually invincible. These Nation-in-arms Republics, however did not became purely military, for their constitution also required their citizens to devote attention to industry and agriculture. On the evidence of Greek witnesses, they were not only good soldiers maintaining a very high tradition of bravery and skill in war, but also a good agriculturists. The hand which wielded the sword successfully, was accutomed to use the scythe with equal facility. According to Arthashastra and Buddhist documents, they were both agricultural and industrial (Varta-Sastropajivinah). Hence they were found rich as well as strong.[16][17]

[edit] Aristocratic Corporations and Warriors

Scholars have further styled the "Corporations of Warriors" (Kshatriya Srenis) of the Kambojas and Surashtras, living by varta and warfare (Varta-Sastropajivinah), as constituting essentially the aristocratic class of warriors of the age.[18]

[edit] Most Heroic Bands of Kshatriyas

History and Culture of Indian People (Vol I, p 57) observes: "It is interesting to note that, according to the Arathasastra, the army is to be recruited from the following five classes:

(1) Choras or Pratirodhikas of the day, robbers and bandits;
(2) Mlechchas such as the Kirata highlanders;
(3) Choraganas, organized gangs of brigands;
(4) Ativikasas, foresters and
(5) Sastropajivini-Srenis (i.e Corporations of Warriors), the warrior clans, who were the most heroic (Pravira). Elements like these formed the army of Chandragupta".[19][20][21]

It is remarkable to observe that Kautiliya refers in several places to the "Srenis" (guilds-levies) known for their military strength and further notes that these "Sastropajivinah Srenis" (Kshatriya Srenis) are the most heroic (Sreni.praviira.purusanam)[22] and therefore, a best source for military recruitment[23] and singles out those of Kamboja and Surastra people as the sole Military Republics of this Sastropajivinah category [24] [25].

[edit] Confederated Ganas/Sanghas virtually invincible

Kautiliya's Arthashastra emphatically states that, these Samghas when confederated or united, are virtually invincible[26][27][28] and it is preferable either to befriend them or else to destroy them by disunion or divisions. According to Mahabharata also, the confederated Ganas (Samghas) were noted as "very wealthy, heroic, well-versed in the sastras (learning) and accomplished in the art of weaponry"[29] and it was almost impossible to crush them since they were "immune to subjugation by prowess or cleverness or by temptations or by beauty, except that through the policy of division and subsidy".[30]

Therefore, Kautilya recommends that the acquisition (conquest) of a Samgha is more desirable than an alliance of good will or military aid. Those (Sanghas) which are united (in league) should be treated with the policy of subsidy and peace, for they are invincible. Those which are not united should be conquered by army and disunion.[31]

The outsiders were always eager to seek alliance with these confederated martial entities (Ganas) and the latter took special delight in reducing their foes and saw to it their own prosperity.[32]

The Martial Republics mentioned in the Arthashastra are headed by the Kambojas.[33]

[edit] Kamboja Republics from other sources

The republicanism of the Kambojas is also attested from the Rock Edicts of king Ashoka[34] as well as from great epic Mahabharata,[35] which refers to many Ganas or Sanghas of the Kambojas fighting on Kauravas side.[36]

e.g: ......."the numerous Ganas/Samghas of the Kambojas all of whom were regarded as very brave and accomplished in the battle field and whom Karna had earlier fought with and vanquished...."[37].

From Panini, we also learn that the Kambojas were republican people and their constitution, around this period, matched that of the "Raja-sabdopajivinah" (king-consul) type of Kautiliya’s Arthashastra.[38]

[edit] Kamboja Srenis or Corporations in Mauryan Army

Chandragupta Maurya constituted his army based on the principles and recommendations of Arthashastra.[39] This is evident from the fact that the martial clans of Kambojas find prominent mention in Maurya army as is attested by Mudrarakshasa play of Visakhadutta. Both Mudrarakshasa as well as Jaina work Parisishtaparvan refer to Chandragupta Maurya's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka. This alliance gave Chandragupta a composite army made up of the Republican Kambojas besides also of other warrior clans such as Yavanas, Sakas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas (Bactrians) (Mudrarakshas, II).[40]

With the help of these frontier warlike republican clans from the northwest whom Justin (Marcus Junianus Justinus) brands as "a band of robbers", Chandragupta managed to defeat, first the corrupt Nanda ruler of Magadha and later, on Alexander's death, pounced upon Macedonian straps of Punjab and Afghanistan, thus wiping them out, and laying the foundations of a Maurya Empire in northern and north-western India.[41]

[edit] Kamboja Silver in Arthashastra

Kautiliya’s Arthashastra[42] informs us that Kambuka silver was extracted from mountain Kambu.[43]

e.g: "Tutthodgata, what which is extracted from the mountain, Tuttha; gaudika, that which is the product of the country known as Gauda; Kámbuka, that which is extracted from the mountain Kambu; and chákraválika, that which is extracted from the mountain Chakravála are the varieties of silver".[44]

The Kambuka of Arthashastra is simply a variant of Kambuja/Kamboja (or Kambojika). The silver from Mountain Kambu (in Kamboja in Afghanistan i.e Ancient Kamboj country), has been referred to as Kambuka or Kambu (= Kamboj).[45][46][47][48][49]

The Silver mines of Badakshan have been famous since Ancient times. The Arab historians refer to silver mines of Anderab/Wakhan.[50][51][52]

[edit] References

  1. ^
    Sanskrit:
    prayogyanam uttamah Kambhoja.Saindhava.Aratta.Vanayujah,
    madhyama Bahliika.Papeyaka.Sauviraka.Taitalah,
    shesah pratyavarah
    (Kautiliya Arathashastra, II.13.10).
  2. ^ Kautiliya's Arathashastra, 1956, Book II, Dr R. Shamashastri [1].
  3. ^ History of civilizations of Central Asia, 1999, p 404, Ahmad Hasan Dani, Vadim Mikhaĭlovich Masson, János Harmatta, Boris Abramovich Litvinovskiĭ, Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Unesco.; Archieves d'etudes Orientales, 1910, p 321; Public Finance in Ancient India, 1978, p 159, K. R. Sarkar; Aryatarangini, the Saga of the Indo-Aryans, 1969, p 324,Ayyaswami Kalyanaraman; Amaravati Sculptures in the Madras Government Museum, 1942, p 123, C. Sivaramamurti; Dr. Modi Memorial Volume: Papers on Indo-Iranian and Other Subjects, 1930, p 354, Sir Jivanji Jamshedji Modi;The Modern Review, p 135, Ramananda Chatterjee; Cultural History from the Kurma Puraana, 1975, p 302 G. K. Pai; Main Currents in the Ancient History of Gujarat, 1960, p 4, Bhasker Anand Saletore, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda Dept. of History; Amaravati Sculptures in the Madras Government Museum, 1942, p 123, C. Sivaramamurti.
  4. ^
    Sanskrit:
    Kamboja.Suraastra.Ksatriya.shreny.aadayovartasastra.upajiivinah|
    Licchivika.Vrjika.Mallaka.Madraka.Kukura.Kuru.Panchala.adayo raaja.shabda.upajiivinah||
    (Kautiliya Arathashastra, 11.1.03).
  5. ^ Kautiliya's Arathashastra, 1956, p 407, Dr R. Shamashastri [2].
  6. ^ The Mauryan Polity, 1932, p 70, V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar.
  7. ^ Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by Romila Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1960 p 94, Dr Romila Thapar.
  8. ^ Caste Class and Occupations, 1961, p 81, G. S. Ghurye.
  9. ^ The Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 403.
  10. ^ Chandragupta Maurya and His Times: Madras University, Sir William Meyer Lectures, 1940-41, p 168, Dr Radha Kumud Mookerji.
  11. ^ FEW MORE REFERENCES: The Military History of Bengal, 1977, p 47, P. Sensarma; Indological Studies, 1950, p 9, Dr B. C Law; Public Administration in India: Retrospect and Prospects, 1993, p 276, C. P. Barthwal; Main Currents in the Ancient History of Gujarat, 1960, p 24, Bhasker Anand Saletore, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda Deptt. of History; Some Ksatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p 238, Dr B, C. Law; Sovereignty in Ancient Indian Polity: A Study in the Evolution of Early Indian State, 1938, p 68, Dr Har Narain Sinha; Material and Ideological Factors in Indian History, 1966, p 37, Tara Chand; Historical and Cultural Chronology of Gujarat, 1960, p 33, Dr M. R. Majmudar; Caste and Race in India, 1932, p 75 etc etc.
  12. ^ Hindu Polity, A Constitutional History of Hindu India, 1978, pp 31, 51-52, 163-64, Dr K. P. Jayswal; The Mauryan Polity, 1993, p 70, V.R.Ramachandra Dikshitar; Juristic Concepts of Ancient Indian Polity, 1980, p 79; Nagendra Singh; Kautilya's Political Ideas and Institutions, 1971, p 149, Radhakrishna Choudhary; cf: The Geographical Data in Early Puranas, a Critical Study, 1978, pp 164, 165, 322, Dr M. R. Singh; A Primer of Hindu Polity, 1969, p 68; Substance of Hindu Polity, 1959, p 75, Chandra Prakash Bhambhri, Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 263-265, Dr J. L. Kamboj etc
  13. ^ Panini's Ashtadhyayi 5.3.114, 4.3.97
  14. ^ Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, 1960, p 168, Radhakumud Mookerji.
  15. ^ Ancient Indian Republics: from the earliest times to the 6th century A.D., 1976,p 20, Shivenandan Misra; Kautilya's Political Ideas and Institutions, 1971, p 224, Radhakrishna Choudhary.
  16. ^ Hindu Polity, A Constututional History of Hindyu India, 1978, p 51, 52, 163, 164, Dr K. P. Jayswal.
  17. ^ Kautilya's Political Ideas and Institutions, 1971, p 227, Radhakrishna Choudhary.
  18. ^ Main Currents in the Ancient History of Gujarat, 1960, pp 25-26, Bhasker Anand Saletore, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda Dept. of History.
  19. ^ History and Culture of Indian People, THe Age of Imperial Unity, p 57, Editors: Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar.
  20. ^
    tesam alabhe bandhu.mitra.kulebhyah samaarjanam || 26 ||
    utsaaha.hiinah shreni.praviira.purusanam
    cora.gana.atavika.mleccha.jatinam para.apakarinam
    gudha.purusanam ca yathaa.labbham upacayam kurvita || 27 ||
    para.mishra.apratikaaram abaliyasam vaa paresu prayujita || 28 ||
    (Arthashastra 7.14.26-28).
  21. ^ Dr R. K. Mukerjee writes: "Kautiliya, in his Arthashastra, also lists six classes of soldiery forming the king’s army viz: (1). Maula: troops in charge of the Mula, the root, or centre of provincial administration known as Stathniya …a provincial garrison (Mula-Raksnam in IX.2); (2). Bhrita: the mercenary troops engaged on pay; (3). Sreni: gild-levies, the troops recruited from the warrior clans belonging to countries such as Kamboja, Surashtra and the like [XI. i]; and also interpreted to mean soldiers pursuing the military art as a means of livlihood in the province (Janapada.vartyayudhiyaganah (I.33; IX.2; X.1); (4). Mitra-bala: army supplied by an ally; (5). Amitra-bala: troops recruited from the enemy country; (6). Atavi bala: the troops recruited from the forest tribes under the Warden of forests (Atavipala) (Ib.). Of these six classes of soldiers, those coming from the warrior-clans (i.e. SRENI-BALA) took to arms as a profession and are called by Kautilya as Sastropajivinah (XI.1). Kautilya mentions the Kambojas and Surastras as examples of such military clans forming the Sastropajivinah class of troops. He also mentions a class of Ayudhiya villages which were like colonies of professional soldiers censussed by the rural officers (II.35). It is interesting to note that Panini also mentions military communities called Ayudhajivi". The Ayudhajivi of Panini are equivalent to the Sastropajivinah of Kautiliya (Chandragupta Maurya and His Times: Madras University, Sir William Meyer Lectures, 1940-41, p 168, Dr Radha Kumud Mookerji).
  22. ^ Arthashastrta 7.14.26-28.
  23. ^ History and Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Kanauj, The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p 57, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A,. D. Pusalkar; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 263, 290, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 141-142, K. S Dardi; cf: Chandragupta Maurya and His Times: Madras University, Sir William Meyer Lectures, 1940-41, p 168, Radha Kumud Mookerji; Cf Also: Comprehensive History of India, Vol II, p 3, Dr Nilkanta Shasteri.
  24. ^ Arthashastra 11.1.1-4; Local Government in Ancient India, 1958, p 214, Radhakumud Mookerji.
  25. ^ When the king is desperate (utsahahina), as a last source of strength, he is advised to turn to an army recruited from the fearless warriors of the "Srenis" ('Sreni-pravira-purashanam) i.e those from Corporation of the Kambojas, Surashtras etc (Arthashastra XI.1); the gangs of brigands (Choraganas); the forresters (Atavikas); and the Mlechcha tribes (like the Kiratas)---in that order (Arathashastra VII.14) (See: op cit. p 168, Dr Radha Kumud Mookerji).
  26. ^
    samgha.laabho danda.mitra.laabhaanaam uttamah || 1 ||
    samghaa hi samhatatvaad adhrsyaah paresaam || 2 ||
    taan anugunaan bhujjiita saama.daanaabhyaam, vigunaan bheda.dandaabhyaam || 3 ||
    (Arthashas:tra 11.1.01-03).
  27. ^ Conquest of Samghas is more desirable than an alliance of goodwill or military aid. Those which are united (in league) should be treated with the policy of subsidy and peace, for they are otherwise invincible. Those which are not united should be conquered by army and disunion (Arthashastra 11.1.1-4)
  28. ^ SEE ON LINE ARTHASHASTRA: [ http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Arthashastra/BookXI.htm].
  29. ^ dravyavantashcha shurashcha sastragyah sastraparagah || MBH 12/107/21.
  30. ^ MBH 12/107/31; 12/107/32, MBH 12.107.13.
  31. ^ Hindu Polity, 1978, p 115, Dr K. P. Jayswal.
  32. ^ MBH 12.107.15.
  33. ^ Hindu Polity, p 52 1978, Dr K. P. Jayaswal.
  34. ^ araja-vishaya...Rock Edict XIII; Hindu Polity, 1978, pp 130-131; Ancient India, 2003, pp 839-40, Dr V. D. Mahajan.
  35. ^ See: State and Government in Ancient India, 1992, pp 118, 399, Dr A. S Altekar.
  36. ^
    Sanskrit:
    Narayanashcha Gopalah Kambojana.n cha ye ganah |.
    Karnena vijitah purva.n sangrame shura sammatah||
    (MBH 7.91.39).
  37. ^ MBH 7.91.39.
  38. ^ cf: Hindu Polity, Part I & II, p 52, Dr K. P. Jayswalcf; Ancient Kambojas, 1981, pp 264-65, Dr J. L. Kamboj; Kautilya's Political Ideas and Institutions, 1971, p 224, Radhakrishna Choudhary.
  39. ^ Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 263, 290, Dr J. L. Kamboj; cf: History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, p 57, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 141-142, K. S. Dardi.
  40. ^
    Sanskrit:
    asti tava Shaka-Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parsika-Bahlika parbhutibhih
    Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha Chandergupta Parvateshvara
    balairudidhibhiriva parchalitsalilaih samantaad uprudham Kusumpurama
    (See: Mudrarakshasa II).
  41. ^ Chandragupta Maurya and His Times: Madras University, Sir William Meyer Lectures, 1940-41, p 168, Radha Kumud Mookerji.
  42. ^ Arathashastra, 02.13.10.
  43. ^
    Sanskrit:
    tuttha.udgatam gaudikam Kambukam cakravalikam ca rupyam |.
    Kautiliya Arathashastra, 02.13.10.
  44. ^ Kautiliya's Arathashastra, 1956, Book II, Dr R. Shamashastri.
  45. ^ Sixty years of the Numismatic Society of India, 1910-1971, History and Presidential Address, Numismatic Society of India, 1973.
  46. ^ Tribes Coins & Study, 1972, p 274, Dr Mahesh Kumar Sharma, University of Magadha.
  47. ^ The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 76, K. S. Dardi.
  48. ^ Kushāna Silver Coinage, 1982, p 61, Bratindra Nath Mukherjee.
  49. ^ Technology of Indian Coinage, 1988, p 72, P. K. D. Lee, Bratindra Nath Mukherjee, Indian Museum.
  50. ^ Geog. & Economic Studies in Mahabharata, J.U.P.H.S. Vol XVI, Pt II, p 46, Dr Moti Chandra.
  51. ^ Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, p 246, Dr Kamboj.
  52. ^ Sindhaant Kaumudhi, Arthaprakashaka, Acharya R. R. Pande, 1966, pp 20-22.

[edit] See also

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