Kambojas

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Articles related to Kambojas
Location
Language and ethnicity
Etymology
in Indian Literature
Kamboja Migration
Horsemen
Ashvakas
Kambojas of Panini
Kambojas and Manusmriti
Parama Kamboja

Kambojas are a very ancient people of the north-western parts of the Indian subcontinent and what is now Afghanistan, frequently mentioned in ancient texts, although not in the Rig Veda. They apparently belong to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family.

The Kambojas still live as Kamboj and Kamboh in the greater Panjab, and as Kams/Kamoz/Kaumoj and Katirs/Kamtoz of the Siyaposh tribe in the Nuristan (former Kafirstan) province of Afghanistan.[1][2] Their numbers have greatly dwindled, and the total population still known by these forms of their ancient name is currently estimated to be about 1.5 million.

Contents

[edit] Ethnicity & Language of Kambojas

Main article: Ethnicity of Kambojas

Numerous classical sources indicate that ancient Kamboja was a center of Iranian civilization.[3] This is evident from the Mazdean religious customs of the ancient Kambojas,[4] as well as from the Avestan language they spoke.[5]

Faravahar
Faravahar

It is now widely accepted among scholars that the Kambojas were an Avestan speaking group of East Iranians, and were located mainly in north-eastern Afghanistan and parts of Tajikstan.[6] Some scholars also believe that the Zoroastrian religion originated in eastern Iran in the land of the Kambojas.[7]

The tribal name Kamboja has been traced to the royal name Kambujiya of the Old Persian Inscriptions (known as Cambyses to the Greeks).[8][9][10] [11] [12] [13] [14].

Kambujiya or Kambaujiya was the name of several great Persian kings of the Achaemenid line. This name also appears written as C-n-b-n-z-y in Aramaic, Kambuzia in Assyrian, Kambythet in Egyptian, Kam-bu-zi-ia in Akkadian, Kan-bu-zi-ia in Elamite, and Kanpuziya in Susian language. The Khmer of Angkor believed their mythical ancestors to be the people of "Kamboja" and traced their lineage to Kambujiya, hence the modern name of Cambodia, "Kampuchea".

Cyrus the Great
Cyrus the Great

Cambyses III, son of Cyrus the Great, is famous for his conquest of Egypt (525 BCE), and for the havoc he wrought upon that country.

[edit] Original Home of Kambojas

Main article: Kamboja Location

Analysis of ancient Sanskrit texts[15] and inscriptions[16] place the Kambojas, Gandharas, Yavanas (Greeks), Madras, and the Sakas in the Uttarapatha - the northern division of Jambudvipa (the innermost concentric island continent in Hindu scripture). Geographically, this area sat along, and was named for, the main trade route from the mouth the Ganges to Balkh, now a small town in Northern Afghanistan. Some writers hold that Uttarapatha included the whole of Northern India and comprised very area of Central Asia, as far as the Urals and the Caspian Sea to the Yenisei and from Turkistan and Tien Shan ranges to as far as the Arctic (Dr S. M. Ali).

Linguistic evidence, combined with this literary and inscriptional evidence, has led many scholars of note to conclude that ancient Kambojas originally belonged to the Ghalcha-speaking area of Central Asia. For example, Yasaka's Nirukata (II/2) attests that verb shavati in the sense "to go" was used by only the Kambojas. It has been proven that the modern Ghalcha dialects, Valkhi, Shigali, Sriqoli, Jebaka (also called Sanglichi or Ishkashim), Munjani, Yidga and Yagnobi, mainly spoken in Pamirs and countries on the headwaters of Oxus, still use terms derived from ancient Kamboja shavati in the sense "to go". The Yagnobi dialect spoken in Yagnobe around the headwaters of Zeravshan in Sogdiana, also still contains a relic from ancient Kamboja shavati in the sense "to go". Further, the former language of Badakshan was also a dialect of Galcha, said to have been replaced by Persian only in the last few centuries.[17] Thus, the ancient Kamboja probably included the Pamirs, Badakshan, and possibly parts of Tajikstan, including Yognobi region in the doab of the Oxus. On the east it was bounded roughly by Yarkand and/or Kashgar, on the west by Bahlika (Uttaramadra), on the northwest by Sogdiana, on the north by Uttarakuru, on the southeast by Darada, and on the south by Gandhara.

Later, some sections of the Kambojas crossed the Hindukush and planted Kamboja colonies in Paropamisadae and as far as Rajauri. This view is fully supported by the Mahabharata,[18] which specifically draws attention to the Kambojas in the cis-Hindukush region as being neighbors to the Daradas, and the Parama-Kambojas across the Hindukush as being neighbors to the Rishikas (or Tukharas) of Ferghana/Sogdiana.

The two separate Kamboja settlements are also substantiated from Ptolemy's Geography, which references a geographical term Tambyzoi located on the river Oxus in Bactria,[19] and an Ambautai people living on the southern side of Hindukush in the Paropamisadae.[20] Scholars have identified both the Ptolemian Tambyzoi and Ambautai with Sanskrit Kamboja [21] [22].

The Yidga sub-dialect of Galcha Munjani is still spoken on the southern sides of Hindukush in Paropamisadae, further strengthening the view that some Kambojas crossed south of the Hindukush. Still further, Ptolemy Geography[23] attests a tribal people called Komoi located north of Bactria in Sogdiana. It has been pointed out that the Ptolemian Komoi is classical form of Kamboi (or Kamboika: from Pali Kambojika, Sanskrit Kamboja). This settlement of the Kamboj is believed to have resulted in the wake of tribal movement of the Scythian Komedes (which included Parama Kambojas) from Alai Valley/Alai Mountains into the west around second century BCE.

With time, the trans-Hindukush Kambojas remained essentially Iranian in culture and religion, while those in the cis-Hindukush region came partially (or partly) under Indian cultural influence. This probably is the reason as to why the ancient Kambojas are believed to have had both Indian as well as Iranian affinities.

Still later, some sections of the Kambojas apparently moved even farther, to Arachosia, as attested by the Aramaic version of Greco-Aramaic inscriptions of king Ashoka found in Kandahar. Some scholars have identified the original Kamboja with Arachosia, but this view does not seem to be correct.

[edit] Kambysene/Cambysene & Kamboja connection?

Historians believe that, there was a movement of the Eurasian nomads in Iran in the early centuries of first millennium BCE, in which the Cimmerians and Yautiya figured prominently. Driven by Medes, these Eurasian nomads bifurcated into two wings, the right one pushing north-westwards upto Transcaspiana and the left one wheeling towards the south-east and penertrating into Afghanistan and Punjab. Closely allied to the Iranian Yautiya were the Kurus, Kambojas and some other clans of the Scythians, which in later centuries, had sided with Achaemenid Teispes (Cispi), and contributed to the formation of Achaemenian empire in Iran (Dr Buddha Prakash, Dr C. Chakravarty, Qamarud Din Ahmed etc). Soon these early Scythians merged with sedentary population of Iranians and became an integral part of them thus losing all traces of this ancient incursion except for some place-names, noted by a grammarian, interested in linguistics or some faint traditions lost in the multitudinous amalgam of legendary lore. According to Dr Buddha Prakash, the Indian epic Mahabharata, in reality, is a record of Scytho-Iranian invasion of India of the 9th c BCE [24] [25]. Mahabharata abundantly attests that the Kambojas and their kindered migrating Scythian tribes like the Sakas, Tusharas etc had played a very prominent role in the Kurukshetra war where they had fought under the supreme command of Sudakshina Kamboja.

According to Dr Chandra Chakravarty, the nomadic invaders who had invaded Iran several centuries prior to Christian era were Scythian tribes of the Kambysene from west of Caspian region i.e ancient Armenia. Name Kambysene has been attested anciently by Strabo which he specifies as a region bordering on Caucasus mountains [26]. It comprised a rugged region through which a road connecting Albania and Iberia passed [27]. The Greek form of the name is believed to have been derived in the Hellenistic period from an indigenous name, corresponding to Armenian Kamboean. In Georgian, it is written Kambeovani, in Arabic, Qambzan. In Sanskrit it was spoken as Kamboja. Though not attested prior to Strabo, the region Kambysene is believed to have born this name since remote antiquity. The tribal people living around this region were also called by the same name. Strabo also attests two rivers viz: Cyrus (modern Kura) and Cambysene (modern Jori) [28], the latter was a tributary of the former. According to Ernst Herzfeld, the names of Cyrus and Cambyses rivers, as well as the Achaemenid names Kurush and Kambujiya, were derived from two ethnics [29]. Obviously these two ethnics were none else than the ancient Kurus and Kambojas of the Sanskrit traditions.

According to Dr Chandra Chakravarty, the name Kambysene of the Greeks translates into Kamboja and the Cyrus into Kuru of the Sanskrit texts [30]. Dr Chakravarty also states that the hordes, who had participated in the earlier invasion of Iran along with Yautiyas were the Nordic Scythians who were living around the Kambysene region, near Mt Caucasus in ancient Armenia. They were the Kuru-Kambojas of the Sanskrit texts [31]. These Nordic Kuru-Kambojas, later mixed with the Alpine base "Parsa-Xsayatia" (Purush-Khattis) Iranians [32] and gave birth to the famous Achaemenian dynastic line of Persia. This might explain as to why the Achemenians chose to name their famous kings as Kambujia (Cambyses) and Kurush (Cyrus). Dr Chakravarty further states that the Kambohs of NW Punjab are the modern representatives of these Scythian Kambysene, whom he calls Scythian Kambojas [33]. Dr Chakravarty further writes that a branch of these Scythian Kambysene (=Kambojas) had also settled in north-west India, and another one reached Tibetan plateau where they mixed with the locals; and some Tibetans are still called Kambojas [34]. And through Tibet, they went further to Mekong valley where they were called Kambujas (Cambodians), now represented by the Chams, still a tall, fair, dolichocephelic people with non-mongoloid eyes, of the Mon-Khmers [35].

[edit] Kambojas: A Kshatriya Clan

In India, the Kambojas obviously belonged to the Kshatriya caste of Indo-Aryan society.

The earliest and most powerful reference endorsing the Kshatriya-hood of the Kambojas is Panini's fifth century BCE Ashtadhyayi. Panini refers to the Kamboja Janapada, and mentions it as "one of the fifteen powerful Kshatriya Janapadas" of his times, inhabited and ruled by Kamboja Kshatriyas.[36] See: Kambojas of Panini

Kamboj warrior
Kamboj warrior

The Harivamsa attests that the clans of Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas etc. were "formerly noble Kshatriyas". It was king Sagara who had deprived the Kambojas, and other allied tribes, of their Kshatiya-hood[37] and forbade them from performing Svadhyayas and Vasatkaras.[38]

The Harivamsa calls this group of Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas as "Kśatriya-pungavah", i.e., foremost among the Kśatriyas. Vayu Purana calls them as "Kśatriya ganah" (Kshatriya hordes). [39] [40] [41].

The Manusmriti attests that the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas etc were originally "noble Kshatriyas", but were gradually degraded to the status of Sudras, on account of their neglect of sacred rites and non-entertainment of the Brahmanas in their countries.[42]

The Mahabharata likewise, also notes that the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, et al. were originally "noble Kshatriyas", who later got degraded to barbaric status due to the wrath of the Brahmanas.[43]

The Arthashastra of Kautiliya[44] attests the Kshatriya Shrenis (Corporations of Warriors) of the Kambojas, Surashtras, and some other nations, and mentions them as living by agriculture, trade and warfare.

The legend of Daivi Khadga or Divine Sword detailed in Shantiparva of Mahabharata[45] also powerfully endorses the Kshatriya-hood of the Kambojas. The sword as the "symbol of Kshatriya-hood" was wrested by the warrior king Kamboja from the Kosala king Kuvalashava alias Dhundhumara, from whom it went to another warrior king called Muchukunda.[46]

See: Mahabharata Sword

Bhagavata Purana[47] references a king of the Kambojas, and calls him a "powerfully armed mighty warrior" (samiti-salina atta-capah Kamboja).

Kalika Purana[48] refers to a war between the Buddhist king Kali (Maurya Brihadratha) and the Brahmanical king Kalika (Pusyamitra Sunga), where the Kambojas came as military supporters to Brihadratha, (187-180) BCE. The Purana notes the Kamboja warriors as Kambojai...bhimavikramaih, i.e. the Kambojas of terrific military prowess", again confirming the Kshatriya-hood of the Kambojas.

Brahmanda Purana talks of 21 battles waged by Brahmin sage Parsurama against the ancient Kashatriya clans of the Indian subcontinent. The list of Kshatriyas whom sage Parsurama fought with includes the Kambojas as well.[49] This ancient evidence again verifies that Kambojas were a Kshatriya clan.

There are numerous similar references in the Puranas, Mahabharata, Ramayana and other ancient Sanskrit and Pali literature, that further document the Kshatriya-hood of the Kambojas.

Passages in Mahabharata, Puranas and other ancient texts indicate that the Kambojas were a 'valiant warriors' [50]; particularly 'hard to fight with' [51]; invincible [52]; expert in the use of 'diverse weapons' [53]; 'wrathful, ferocious and shaved-headed warriors' [54]; expert cavalarymen [55]; 'deadly like cobras' [56]; 'strikers of fierce force' [57]; 'Death-personified' [58]; 'of fearful bearing like Yama' (the god of death) [59]; and 'war-loving Kambojas' [60] etc etc.

[edit] Kambojas: Master Horsemen

Main article: Kamboja Horsemen

The horses of the Kambojas were famous throughout all periods of ancient history. Ancient literature is overflowing with excellent references to the famed Kamboja horses. The Puranas, the Epics, ancient Sanskrit plays, the Buddhist Jatakas, the Jaina Canon, and numerous other ancient sources, all agree that the horses of the Kambojas were a foremost breed.

War Horse
War Horse

In Buddhist texts like Manorathpurani, Kunala Jataka and Samangavilasini, the Kamboja land is spoken of as the "birth place of horses" (Kambojo assánam áyatanam.... Samangalavilasini, I, p. 124).

The Aruppa-Niddesa of Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa mentions Kamboja as the "base of horses" (10/28).

The Jaina Canon Uttaradhyana-Sutra[61] tells us that a trained Kamboja horse exceeded all other horses in speed and no noise could ever frighten it [62].

The Bhishamaparva of Mahabharata[63] lists the best horses from various lands, but places the steeds from Kamboja at the head of the list, and specifically designates them as the leaders among the best horses (Kamboja....mukhyanam).[64]

In the great battle fought on the field of Kurukshetra, the fast and powerful steeds of Kamboja were of greatest service (Dr. B. C. Law).

Besides, the Ramayana,[65] Kautiliya's Arthashastra,[66] the Brahmanda Purana,[67] Somes'ara's Manasollasa,[68] Ashva.Chakitsata by Nakula (p. 415), Raghuvamsha[69] and Mandakraanta of Kalidasa, Karanabhaar (Ch 19) of Bhaasa, Vamsa-Bhaskara, Madhypithika, Karnatakadambari of Nagavarman (verse 96, p 305) and numerous other ancient texts and inscriptions also make highly laudatory references to Kamboja horses, and state them the finest breed.

Vishnu Vardhana (12th century), the real founder of Hoysala greatness, who later on became ruler of Mysore, made the earth tremble under the tramp of his powerful Kamboja horses.[70]

There were Kamboja steeds in the cavalry of Pandya king Valabhadeva who is referred to as the proud possessor/rider of the Kamboja horses and elephants.[71]

These references amply demonstrate that Kamboja horses were sleek, very powerful and a foremost breed. They have been especially noted for their great fleetness and remarkable behavior on the battle field. No doubt, Kamboja steeds were the prized possession of kings and warriors in ancient times.

It was on account of their supreme position in horse (Ashva) culture that the ancient Kambojas were also popularly known as Ashvakas, i.e. horsemen. Their clans in the Kunar andSwat valleys have been referred to as Assakenois and Aspasios in classical writings, and Ashvakayanas and Ashvayanas in Panini's Ashtadhyayi.

The Mahabharata specifically refers to the Kambojas as Ashva-Yudha-Kushalah, i.e., expert cavalrymen.[72] Similarly, Vishnudharmotra Purana also attests that the Kambojas and Gandharas were proficient in cavalry warfare (Ashva-Yuddha) [73] [74] [75].

Dronaparva highly applauds the Kamboja cavalry as extremely fast and fleet i.e. ’’Kambojah... yayur.ashvair.mahavegaih’’.[76]

The Mahabharata, Ramayana, numerous Puranas and some foreign sources amply attest that "Kamboja cavalry-troopers were frequently requisitioned in ancient wars" (see Ashvaka#Kamboja cavalry in ancient wars).

Therefore, there is no exaggeration in the Mahabharata statement portraying the ancient Kambojas as horse-lords and masters of horsemanship.

[edit] Kambojas in Indian Literature

Main article: Kambojas in Indian Traditions

[edit] The Kambojas and Alexander the Great

Because the Kambojas were famous for their horses (ashva) and as cavalry-men (ashvaka) they were also popularly called "Ashvakas". The Ashvakas inhabited Eastern Afghanistan, and were included within the more general term Kambojas.[77] French scholars like Dr. E. Lamotte also identify the Ashvakas with the Kambojas.[78] According to one line of scholars, the name Afghan is evidently derived from Ashvakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian.[79] See: Origins of the name Afghan

Bust of Alexander in the British Museum.
Bust of Alexander in the British Museum.

The Kambojas entered into conflict with Alexander the Great as he invaded Central Asia: "The Macedonian conqueror made short shrifts of the arrangements of Darius and over-running Achaemenid Empire, dashed into Afghanistan and encountered stiff resistance of the Kamboja tribes called Aspasios and Assakenois known in the Indian texts as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas".[80] These Ashvayana and Ashvakayana Kamboj clans fought the invader to a man. When worse came to worse, even the Ashvakayana Kamboj women took up arms and joined their fighting husbands, thus preferring "a glorious death to a life of dishonor" [81]. Diodorus gives a detailed graphic accounts as to how the Ashvakayanas had conducted themselves when faced with the sudden treacherous onslaught from Alexander [82].

Commenting on the heroic resistence and courage displayed by the Ashvakayanas (Kambojas) in the face of treacerous onslaught of Alexander, Dr Buddha Prakash remarks: "Hardly could any Thermopylae be more glorious !" [83].

The Ashvakas had fielded 30,000 strong cavalry, 30 elephants and 20,000 infantry against Alexander.

The Ashvayans (Aspasios) were also good cattle breeders and agriculturists. This is clear from large number of bullocks, 230,000 according to Arrian, of a size and shape superior to what the Macedonians had known, that Alexander captured from them and decided to send to Macedonia for agriculture.[84].

[edit] The Kambojas and the Mauryan Empire

The Mudrarakshas play of Visakhadutta as well as the Jain work Parisishtaparvan refers to Chandragupta Maurya's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka. The Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite army made up of Yavanas, Kambojas, Sakas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas (Bactrians) (Mudrarakshas, II).[85]

With the help of these frontier warlike clans from the northwest whom Justin brands as "a band of robbers", Chandragupta managed to defeat, first the corrupt Nanda ruler of Magadha and later, upon Alexander's death, the Macedonian straps of Punjab and Afghanistan, thus laying the foundations of a Maurya Empire in northern and north-western India.

The Kambojas find prominent mention as a unit in the 3rd century BCE Edicts of Ashoka. Rock Edict XIII tells us that the Kambojas had enjoyed autonomy under the Mauryas. The republics mentioned in Rock Edict V are the Yonas, Kambojas, Gandharas, Nabhakas and the Nabhapamkitas. They are designated as araja. vishaya in Rock Edict XIII, which means that they were kingless i.e. republican polities. In other words, the Kambojas formed a self-governing political unit under the Maurya Emperors.[86]

Kambojas affect Buddhism
Kambojas affect Buddhism

King Ashoka sent missionaries to the Kambojas to convert them to Buddhism, and recorded this fact in his Rock Edict V.

Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa attest that Ashoka sent thera Maharakkhita to Yona, and Majjhantika to Kashmra and Gandhara, to preach Dharma among the Yonas, Gandharas and Kambojas.

Sasanavamsa specifically attests that Maharakkhita thera went to Yonaka country and established Buddha's Sasana "in the lands of the Kambojas and other countries"[87]

Thus, the Zoroastrian as well as the Brahmanised Hindu Kambojas appear to have embraced Buddhism in large numbers, due to the efforts of king Ashoka and his envoys.

See also: Edicts of Ashoka

[edit] Kambojas' migration to India and beyond

Main article: Migration of Kambojas

[edit] Modern Kamboj and Kamboh

The population of the modern people who still call themselves Kamboj (or prikritic Kamboh, or Kamoz) or Kambhoj is estimated to be around 1.5 million and the rest of their population, over the time, submerged with other occupationalized castes/groups of the Indian subcontinent.

The Kambojs, by tradition, are divided into 52 and 84 clans. 52 line is stated to be descendants of Cadet branch and 84 from the elder Branch. This is claimed as referring to the young and elder military divisions under which they had fought the Bharata War. Numerous of their clan names overlap with other Kshatriyas and the Rajput castes of the north-west India, thereby suggesting that some of the Kshatriya/Rajput clans of north-west must have descended from the Ancient Kambojas.[88]

The Kambojs/Kambohs practiced weapon-worship in the past but the practice is now going out of vogue.[89]

[edit] Diaspora

The Kamboj or Kamboh living in upper India (Greater Panjab) are identified as the modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas. They are found as Hindus, Sikhs, Muslims, Buddhists and the Jains. Kambojs are known as adventurous and enterprising people. Therefore, as a colonists, servicemen, and businessmen, they have also spread, after the partition, into various parts of India, including a belt of Haryana from Karnal to Yamunanagar, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Ganganagar in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. A minuscule agrarian community called Kambhoj is stated to be living since olden times in Maharashtra, which may have descended from those Kambojas who had settled in South-West India around Christian era.

The Tajiks, Siyaposh tribe (Kam/Kamoz, Katir/Kamtoz) of Nuristan, Yashkuns,Swatis, and the Yusufzais of Eastern Afghanistan and NWFP of Pakistan are said by various scholars to have descended from the ancient Kambojas.[90]. According to Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, the Kambus (Kambohs/Kambojs) are an offshoot of the Afghan stock[91] link

[edit] Traditions

The Kambohs are stated to be the ancient inhabitants of Persia.[92]

The Sikh Kamboj of Kapurthala & Jullundur (Punjab) claim descent from Raja Karan. They also have a tradition that their ancestors came from Kashmir.[93]

Hindu Kambohs claim to be related to the Rajputs and to have come from Persia through southern Afghanistan.[94] The Chapter III of Gazetteer of Muzaffarnagar (UP) based on British India census reports of 1881/1891 etc note that about 1200 Muslim and Hindu Kamboj were living in Saharanpur who also claimed to be Rajputs. The Kamboj in Phillaur, District Jullundur, too claimed to be Suryavanshi Rajputs.[95] The Kambohs of Bijnor claim to have come from Trans-Indus country and Mr Purser accepts this as evidently true. The Hindu Kambohs from Karnal claim their origin from Garh-Gajni. Their Pandits still pronounce the following couplet at the phera during their marriage ceremony to give information about their original home: Garh Gajni nikaas, Lachhoti Ghaggar vaas (Trans: Originated from the fort of Gajni, and settled down in Ghaggar region (in Haryana or Punjab)). One Gajni or Ghazni is located in Afghanistan, but based on another tradition of the Karnal Kamboj, the eminent ethnographers like H. A. Rose and several other scholars have identified this Gajni in Kambay in Saurashtra (port of Vallabhi)[96]

Muslim Kambohs have a tradition that they descended from ancient Kai dynasty of Persia, to which the emperors Kaikaus, Kaikhusro, Kaikubad, Kai-lehrashab and Darius all belonged. On the last king of the dynasty having been dethroned, and expelled from the country, he wandered about some time with his family and dependents in the neighboring countries and finally settled in Punjab [97] [98] [99] [100] [101] [102] [103] [104] [105] [106][107].

[edit] During Muslim Rule

Muslim Kambohs/Kambojs were very influential and powerful in the early days of Moghul rule. General Shahbaz Khan Kamboh was the most trusted general of Akbar.[108] Sheikh Gadai Kamboh was the Sadar-i-Jahan in Akbar's reign.[109] Numerous other Kamboj are known to have occupied very key civil and military positions during Lodhi, Pathan and the Moghul reign in India. 'The Sayyids and the Kambohs among the Indian Muslims were specially favored for high military and civil positions during Moghul rule',[110] [111] [112] [113] Aina-i-Akbari of Abu-Al-Fazal Alami informs us that it was a matter of honor to belong to the Kamboh lineage during the reigns of Mughal emperors like Akbar and Jahangir etc.[114]

The Kambohs held Nakodar in Jullundur[115] and Sohna in Gurgaon some centuries ago; and the tombs and mosques that they have left in Sohna show that they must have enjoyed considerable position.[116]

Main article: Kamboj in Muslim and British Era

[edit] Agriculturists

The modern Kamboj are still found living chiefly by agriculture, business and military service which were the chief professions followed by their Kamboja ancestors some 2500 years ago as powerfully attested by Arthashastra[117] and Brhat Samhita.[118] Numerous foreign and Indian writers have described the modern Kambojs/Kambohs as one of the finest class of agriculturists of India [119]. British colonial writers like H. A. Rose, Denzil Charles J. Ibbetson etc note the Kamboj and Ahir agriculturists as the first rank husbandmen and they rate them above the Jatts.[120] They occupy exactly the same position in general farming as the Ramgarhias occupy in general industry.

The Kambojs have made great contributions in agriculture and military fields. The majority of Krishi Pandit awards in Rajasthan/India have been won by the Kamboj agriculturists[121] . Col Lal Singh Kamboj, a landlord from Uttar Pradesh, was the first Indian farmer to win the prestigious Padam Shri Award for progressive farming in 1968 from President of India. According to Dr M. S. Randhawa (Ex-Vice Chancellor, Punjab University), the Kamboj farmers have no equals in industry and tenacity.[122]

[edit] Physical Characteristics

Several foreign and indigenous observers have described the modern Kambojs as very industrious, stiff-necked, turbulent, skillful, provident and enterprising race.[123] Some British ethnologists have described the Kambohs/Kambojs as ethnically more akin to the Afghans than to any of the "meek Hindu races" of the plains of India wherein they have now settled for generations.[124][125]

There is a medieval era Persian proverb (verse) current in the north-west to the effect that of the Afghans, the Kambohs (Kamboj) and the Kashmiris... all three are rogues.[126] [127][128] Prof Blochman comments on this proverb: "This verse is very modern, for during the reigns of Akbar and Jehangir, it was certainly a distinction to belong to the Kamboh tribe".[129]

This old proverb seems to convey the historical fact that in the distant past, the Persians, the Afghans, the Kambojs/Kambohs and the Kasmiris lived more or less as neighbors and belonged to one inter-related racial group.

Against the above proverb and with reference to the Kambohs/Kambojs, other investigators and scholars like Sardar Gurdial Singh note that "during the reign of terror, it were the Kambojs/Kambohs only who were most trusted by the rich bankers for carrying their cash in the disguise of faqirs". British ethnographer H. A. Rose also states that: "As agents to the bankers, the Kambohs are much trusted" .[130] The honesty and integrity of the Kamboj/Kamboh community of Punjab is proverbial.[131] The Kamboj integrity and honesty has also been specifically acknowledged in the Census Report of India, 1881 by Denzil Ibbetson.[132]

The Kambojs are also proverbial in Hindustan for "their sagacity and quickness of apprehension" (perception or understanding).[133] [134].

The Kambojs have also been noted for their courage, tenacity and stamina for fighting. They (Kamboj) make excellent soldiers, being of very fine physique and possessing great courage.....They have always been noted for their cunning strategy, which now, being far less 'slim' than in former times, has developed into the permissible strategy of war.[135]

The modern Kamboj are a generally tall, well-built, sharp featured, and generally very fair (gaura varna) race, with brown, sometimes reddish hair, brown or sometimes gray or blue or even green eye color, and long sharp noses. Kamboja women have been noted for their beauty since ancient times [136] [137] [138] [139] [140]. In ancient references, the Kambojas have been described as a very handsome race.[141] Ancient Kamboj princes have also been noted as tall like towers, exceedingly handsome and of gaura varna,[142] having faces illustrious like the full moon,[143] lotus eyed,[144] handsome like the lord-moon among the stars.[145] Even Ramayana calls the Kambojas ravisanibha i.e with faces illustrious like the Sun.[146]

[edit] Kamboj in Sports

  • The Kamboj have made outstanding contributions in wrestling, field hockey and Kabaddi.
  • Jodh Singh, Natha Singh, Hazara Singh, Santa Kharasia, Bakshisha, Chhiba, Khushal, Chanan and Maula Bakhsh are the few foremost Punjabi Kamboj wrestlers of yester-years who had earned great name and fame in wrestling.
  • Olympian Prithipal was probably the greatest hockey full-back of the 20th century. Known as King of short-corner and the Mahabahu of Indian hockey, Prithipal was the first Indian to win both the Arjuna Award, and later Padma Shri Award for his achievements in hockey.
  • Rasool Akhtar, President of Pakistan Hockey Federation, is one of the greatest hockey Olympians from Pakistan. He skippered Pakistani Hockey team in the World Cup competition (1982) which won gold medal by defeating India in the finals. His father, Dr Gulam Rasool Chaudhury was also a world renowned Hockey Olympian who had captained Pakistan Hockey team to victories in 1960 Olympics and later in Asian Hockey Competitions in 1962 and won gold medals for the first time for Pakistan. He also remained President of Pakistan Hockey Federation and Chairman of the Selection Committee. Arshad Chaudhury, nephew of Dr Gulam Rasool Chaudhury is another world renowned Hockey Olympian who participated in 55 international Hockey competitions out of which Pakistan won 50 matches. Arshad won three gold, two silver and one bronze medals in the International Hockey competitions.
  • Er. Mohammad Jehangir (Kamboj), the first Pakistani Japanese to obtain black belts both in Judo and Karate had won gold medal in southern Asian Judo Championship. He also won triple crown by winning three consecutive championships in Judo. From 1977 onwards, Jehangir has bagged several gold and silver medals.
  • A fifteen year old Chandita is the most brilliant emerging roller hockey player of India.
  • Rattan Singh alias Rattu has been the greatest defender in freestyle Kabaddi.

[edit] Kamboja principalities in West/Southwest India

Markendeya Purana [147] lists the Kambojas and Pahlavas among the countries of Udichya division i.e Uttarapatha, but the next chapter (58.30-32) of the same work also refers to other Kamboja and Pahlava settlements, locating them in the south-west of India neighboring the Sindhu, Sauvira and Anarta (north Saurashtra) countries [148].

Brhatsamhita of Varaha Mihira (6th century CE) also locates a Kamboja and Pahlava settlement specifically in the south-west (nairrtyam dizi) of India, neighbouring Sindhu, Sauvira, Saurashtra and Dravida [149].

Arthashastra of Barhaspatya [150] refers to the Kamboja as a great country (Mahavishaya) and locates it adjacent to the Dasrana country (southern Malwa), east of Gujarat [151].

Vishnu Dharmottari [152] includes the Kambojas in the list of Janapadas of south-west India [153].

Raajbilaas, a medieval text, locates a Kamboj settlement in the neighborhood of Kachcha, Sorata or Saurashtra and Gurjara countries of SW India.[154].

Interestingly, Agni Purana locates two Kamboja settlements in India itself....... Kambhoja in south-west India and Kamboja in southern parts of India [155].

The Garuda Purana which was composed comparatively late, also locates a Kamboj principality/settlement in the neighborhood of Ashmaka, Pulinda, Jimuta, Narashtra, Lata and Karnata countries, and also specifically informs us that this section of Kambojas were living in southern division of India (dakshina.path.vasinah) [156].

But like Agni Purana, some recensions of Garuda Purana rather mention two Kamboja settlements within India proper....one Kamboja in south-west India and the second Kamboja in southern India [157].

The above post-Christian Sanskrit references abundantly establish as historical fact, that in the wake of the major events of the second and first centuries BCE, some groups of Central Asian Kambojas in alliance with the Sakas and Pahlavas, had settled the western and south-western parts of India.

IHQ observes: "A branch of the Kambojas known as Apara Kambojas (western Kambojas) is also noticed " [158].

The Kambojas in and around west, south-west India are also mentioned in inscriptions by king Sahasiva Raya of the Sangama Dynasty (1336-1478), kings Harihara & Deva Raya of Narasinga Dynasty (1496-1567), and from the references of king Vishnuvardhana of Hoiyasala Dynasty/Mysore (12th century CE).

Due to the above cited literary/inscriptional evidence, some historians, including Dr Aiyangar and Dr Banerjee, have located Kamboja in Sindhu and Gujarat [159]. It seems clear that the Kamboja they refer to are the post-Christian settlements of Kambojas in western or south-western India and not the original Kamboja of the Sanskrit/Pali literature.

The biography of Shankara Acharya, which is based on religious itineraries, refers to Kambhoja located in Saurashtra comprising Girnar, Somnath, Prabhasa and other regions and a Kamboja located in Central Asia adjacent to Daradistan but lying north of Kashmir. This eighth-century reference attests to two Kamboja settlements, one specifically situated in Saurashtra http://www.geocities.com/advaitavedant/shankarabio.htm. Some historians have also invested western Kshatrapas, especially the Kshahrata Kshatrapas with Kamboja ethnicity [160].

Kambhoja Raja Kathalu is highly popular in Andhra traditions. The story deals with the militaristic exploits of a fierce and adventurous Kambojan king. The tale probably relates to a historical brush between the Andhraites and the intruding Kamboja/Pahlavas hordes in the Christian era.

The Kamboja hordes of the second/first century BCE have left indelible foot prints in the names of mountains, rivers and other geographical places in western India. The Kamb/Kambuh river and Kamboh/Kambo mountain in Sindh [161] are reminiscent of Sanskrit Kamboja. The Kamboi (ancient town/port) in district Patan, Khambhoj in district Anand, Kambay (port/town and Gulf) ... all in Saurashtra; Kumbhoj/Kambhoj (an ancient town) in Kolhapur in Maharashtra; and the Koimbatore city of Tamilnadu in southern India carry the unmistakable footprints of Kambojas. There is also an ancient Kambhoj caste living near Nanded in Maharashtra, possibly the dwindling remnant of ancient Kambojas that settled southwest India around the Christian era.

[edit] References

  1. ^ M. Elphinstone, An account of the kingdom of Caubol, fn p 619; Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1843, p 140; Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1874, p 260 fn; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133, fn, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Banerjee; The Achaemenids and India, 1974, p 13, Dr S Chattopadhyaya; cf:There is an apparent trace of their name in the Caumogees of Kaferistan, who may have retreated to the mountains before the advance of the Turk tribes (Dr H. H. Wilson). See fn 374:15: [1]; cf: "The geographical title of Kamboja is retained to present days in the Kamoj of Cafferstan" (See: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1834, p 97, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland); The Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 192; Cf: Die Kafirs werden Kamoze oder Kamboja genannt (nach Elphinstone) (Adolf Bastian)  :See: Die Voelker des Oestlichen Asien Studien und Reisen, Band I. Die Geschichte der Indochinesen, p 456: See link: [2]; cf: A trace of Kambojas, in their original seat, seems to remain in the Kaumojas of the Hindukush: See foot note 5: [3]; See also: The Sun and the Serpent: p 127-128, Charles Fredrick Oldham: See link: [4]; See also: Die altpersischen Keilinschriften: Im Grundtexte mit Uebersetzung, Grammatik und Glossar – 1881, Page 86, Fr. (Friedrich) Spiegel): See link: [5].
  2. ^ Revue d'ethnographie also notes that the Kamoze, Hilar, Silar and Kamoje were the former clans of the Siaposh Kaffirs and they are linked to the Kambojas of Mahabharata (See: Revue d'ethnographie, 225. See link: [6]).
  3. ^ The Kamboja Janapada, Jan 1964, Purana, Vol VI, No 1, Dr V. S. Aggarwala, p 229; Jataka edited by Fausboll, Vol VI, p 210
  4. ^ Jataka, VI, p 110, Trans. E. B. Cowell; cf: Videvati XIV.5-6; cf: Herodotus I.140; Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1912, p 256, Dr G. A. Grierson
  5. ^ Nirukuta II/2; Patanjali's Mahaabhaa.sya is p. 9, in Vol. 1 Kielhorn's Edition
  6. ^ Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1912, p 256, Dr G. A. Grierson; Purana, Vol V, No 2, July 1963, p 256, Dr D. C. Sircar; Journal Asiatique, CCXLVI 1958, I, pp 47-48, E. Benveniste; The Afghans (Peoples of Asia), 2001, p 127, also Index, W. J. Vogelsang and Willem Vogelsang; Also Fraser 1979; The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 4, Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean, (c.525 to 479 BC), Volume 4, 1988, p 199, John Boardman, N. G. L. Hammond, D. M. Lewis, and M. Ostwald; cf Early Eastern Iran and the Atharvaveda, Persica-9, 1980, fn 81, p 114, Dr Michael Witzel who however, locates the Kambojas in Archosia and Kandhahar
  7. ^ Bharatiya Itihaas Ki Rup Rekha, p 229-231, Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar; Bhartrya Itihaas ki Mimansa, p 229-301, Dr J. C. Vidyalankar; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 217, 221, Dr J. L. Kamboj
  8. ^ This view is held by scholars like C. Lassen, S. Levi, M. Witzel, J. Charpentier, La Valle Poussin, A. Hoffman, A. B. Keith, A. A. Macdonnel, G. K. Nariman, E. Kuhn, H. W. Bellow, A. D. Pusalkar, S. Sen, D. R. Bhandarker and numerous others; See also: An Enquiry into the Ethnography of Afghanistan H. W. Bellow; also see: Sectarianism and Ethnic Violence in Afghanistan, Musa Khan Jalza
  9. ^ H. W. Bellow writes: "Darius succeeded, about 521 B.C to the empire founded by Cyrus (Kurush), and enlarged and consolidated by his son and successor Cambyses (Kambojia, Kambohji). Cyrus, whose mother was called Mandane (Mandana; perhaps a princess of the Mandan tribe), and said to be a Mede, and whose father was called Cambyses (Kambohji; probably a chieftain of the Kamboh tribe) having reduced the Medes and conquered the kingdom of Croesus the Lydian (Lùdi), thereby became master of all the territory extending from the Indus to the Hellespont". —(An enquiry into the Ethnography of Afghanistan H. W. Bellow; See also: Sectarianism and Ethnic Violence in Afghanistan, Musa Khan Jalzai).
  10. ^ Cf: “Historians tend to believe Kambojas were in fact an Iranian tribe. (Old Iranian and old Sanskrit are very close languages. All these people called themselves Aryan, from which comes the name Iran). Panini, the Indian genius of grammar, observed (Panini's Grammar, IV, 1, 175.) that the word Kamboja meant at the same time the tribe and its king. Later historians identified the same word in the name of several great Persian kings, Cambyse (Greek version) or Kambujiya (in Persian) (See: La Valle Poussin, L'Inde aux temps des Maurya, p. 15 and 40.). Cambyse the Second is famous for his conquest of Egypt (525 B.C.) and the havoc he wrought upon this country (ON SOME CAMBODIAN WORDS, Serge Thion, [7]).
  11. ^ James Hope Moulton writes: “The names Kuru and Kamboja are of disputed etymology, but there is no reason whatever to doubt their being Aryan. I do not think there has been any suggestion more attractive than that made long ago by Spiegel (Altpers. Keilinsch.'-, 96) that they attach themselves to Sanskrit Kura and Kamboja, originally Aryan heroes of the fable, whose names were naturally revived in a royal house. Spiegel thinks that the myths about Cyrus may have originated in confusion between the historical and the mythical heroes. (Kamboja is a geographical name, and so is Kuru often : hence their appearance in Iranian similarly to-day as Kur and Kamoj". (Early Zoroastrianism , 2005, Page 45, James Hope Moulton - Kessinger Publishing).
  12. ^ Dr Chandra Chakraverty writes: "The Achaemenids were Kamboja-Kuru Scythian people on the base of Parsa ('Khatti-Puru') tribe. It was a marvelous racial blend and their culture was a similar good synthesis...."(See: The Racial History of India, 1944, p 225, Chandra Chakraberty)
  13. ^ Dr Ranajit Pal: " Toynbee wrote that the Achaemenian universal state belonged also to the Hinduis, the Pathavis etc. - the Indian Kurus and Kambojas were linked with Achaemenian history – Kurush (Cyrus) was a Kuru.( Also See: C. Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism,, part III, pp .652, 654, 449)”.
  14. ^ Dr Michael Witzel wrote in one of his research articles: "The Old Persian -s- (as in < asa 'horse') <*śś <śv <c'v <Indo-European k'w, shares the development of Indo-Iranian c'v > śś with Saka -śś-, while the rest of Iranian has -sp- (aspa) and Vedic has -śv- (Aśva). This feature and others (cf. further grammatical features in Witzel 1989, Ch 10) may point to an ultimately north-eastern (Bactria?) rather than north-western (Urartu/Median) origin of the Old Persian and thus to a track of immigration from the North-east via Media to the Persis, somewhat like Nichols' (1997-98) 'southern trajectory'. A North-eastern origin would be close to the location of the Vedic Parśu".
    COMMENT: Dr Michael Witzel (Harvard University) seems to convey that the Persians may have migrated to Persipolis from Balkh or Bactria in remote antiquity. This is quite a valid and scientific reasoning as the above extract from Dr Michael Witzel seems to show. This shows that the Parsa Achaemenids may have off-shot from the Kambojas in remote antiquity. The remote connection of the Achaemenids to the Kambojas and Kurus is indeed reflected in the royal name Kuru and Kambujiya/Kambaujiya which several of the great monarchs of the Achamenean line of rulers had adopted. Seeing close connections of the Kambojas (Parama-Kambojas), the Madras (Bahlika-Madras or Uttaramadras) and the Kurus (Uttarakurus) which tribes were all located in/around Oxus in Central Asia in remote antiquity, it can be thought that the Kurus, the Kambojas and the Parśus were a related people.
  15. ^ See Mahabharata verses (12/201/40), (6/11/63-64), 5/5/15, 5/159/20 etc; Also Kirfels text of Uttarapatha countries of Bhuvankosha; See: Brahama Purana 27/44-53, Vayu Purana 45/115; Brahmanda Purana 12/16-46; Vamana Purana 13/37 etc
  16. ^ Ashoka’s Rock Edicts, V and XIII etc
  17. ^ Linguistic Survey of India, X, p. 456
  18. ^ Mahabharata 2/27/23-25
  19. ^ Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, History - 2000, p 99,(Editors) Richard J.A. Talbert .
  20. ^ Geography 6.18.3; See map in McCrindle, p 8.
  21. ^ For Tambyzoi = Kamboja, see refs: Indian Antiquary, 1923, p 54; Pre Aryan and Pre Dravidian in India, 1993, p 122, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Dr Jean Przyluski, Jules Bloch, Asian Educational Services; Cities and Civilization, 1962, p 172, Govind Sadashiv Ghurye; Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 1, K. D. Sethna; Asiatic Society, Calcutta, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1956, p 37; Purana, Vol VI, No 2, Jan 1964, pp 207-208; Journal of the Asiatic Society , 1956, p 88, Asiatic Society (Calcutta, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal); Geographical Data in the Early Purāṇas: A Critical Study, 1972, p 165, Dr M. R. Singh; Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, 2000, p 99, edited by Richard J.A. Talbert - History; Neuro-ophthalmology, 2005, p 99 Leonard A. Levin, Anthony C. Arnold; Purana-vimar'sucika -: Bibliography of Articles on Puranas, 1985, p 133, P. G. Lalye.
  22. ^ For Ambautai = Kamboja, see Refs: Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, Vol. 5,1999, issue 1 (September), Dr. M. Witzel; Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History, 2005, p 257, Laurie L. Patton, Edwin Bryant; The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: : Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, 1995, p 326, George Erdosy; Linguistic Aspects of the Aryan non-invasion theory, Part I, Dr. Koenraad Elst, See Link: [8]; The official pro-invasionist argument at last, A review of the Aryan invasion arguments in J. Bronkhorst and M.M. Deshpande: Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia, Dr. Koenraad Elst, See link: [9].
  23. ^ Geography 6.18.3;Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, p 199.
  24. ^ See: Political and Social Movements in Ancient Panjab (from the Vedic Age Upto [sic] the Maurya Period) – 1964, p 125-128, Dr Buddha Prakash
  25. ^ Paradise of Gods – 1966, p 323-24, Qamarud Din Ahmed.
  26. ^ Strabo Geog., 11.14.4
  27. ^ Strabo Geog., 11.4.5; cf. 11.3.5; see also Fabricius, pp. 146, 160, and map; Trever, p. 113 and map
  28. ^ A. Herrmann, in Pauly-Wissowa, X/2, col. 1810, s.v. Kambysene.
  29. ^ The Persian Empire' Studies in Geography and Ethnography of the Ancient Near East, Ernst Herzfeld, ed. G. Walser, Wiesbaden, 1968, esp. pp. 344-46); [10]
  30. ^ Literary History of Ancient India in Relation to Its Racial and Linguistic Affiliations – 1950, p 149, 165, Chandra Chakraberty.
  31. ^ op cit, pp 37, 149, Dr C. Chakravarty.
  32. ^ op cit, pp 32-33, Dr C. Chakravarty; The Racial History of India, 1944, p 225, Chandra Chakraberty: e.g: "The Achaemenids were Kamboja-Kuru Scythian people on the base of Parsa ('Khatti-Puru') tribe. It was a marvelous racial blend and their culture was a similar good synthesis...."; See also: Paradise of Gods – 1966, p 330, Qamarud Din Ahmed: e.g: “It seems therefore, that the Achaemenidae were mixed with Saka Kuru-Kamboja with the Alpine base Khatti-Purus" (i.e. Parsa-Xsayatia).
  33. ^ op cit, pp 37, 149, 165, Dr C. Chakravarty.
  34. ^ op cit, p 165, Dr C. Chakravarty.
  35. ^ op cit, p 165, Dr C. Chakravarty.
  36. ^ Ashtadhyayi, 4.1.168-175
  37. ^ Harivamsa 14.19
  38. ^ Harivamsa, 14.17
  39. ^ Vayu Purana: v 88.127-43.
  40. ^ Cultural History from Vayu Purana, 1973, p 27, fn 185, Reprint of 1946 Edition, published by Deccan College Post Graduate Research Institute, Poona
  41. ^ Foreign Elements in Ancient Indian Society, 2nd Century BC to 7th Century AD - 1979, p 125, Uma Prasad Thapliyal.
  42. ^ Manusmriti verses X.43-44
  43. ^ MBH 13.33.31-32
  44. ^ Arthashastra 11.1.04
  45. ^ MBH 12.166.1-81
  46. ^
    Sanskrit:
    Dhundhumarachcha Kambojo Muchukundastato.alabhat
    MuchukundanMaruttashcha Maruttadapi Raivatah
    (MBH 12.166.77-78)
  47. ^ BHagavata Purana 2.7.35
  48. ^ Kalika Puranna 20/40
  49. ^ Brahmanda Purana, 3.41.36; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 19, Dr J. L. Kamboj; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 15, S. Kirpal Singh
  50. ^ ete Durvarana nama Kambojah (=Kamboja warriors, difficult to be resisted like wild elephants), Mahabharata 7.112.43; The Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 124.
  51. ^ Journal of the American Oriental Society - P 295, American Oriental Society.
  52. ^ Kambojasainyan vidravya durjayam yudhi bharata.
  53. ^ Ibid.; The Social and Military Position of the Ruling Caste in Ancient India, as Represented by the Sanskrit Epic, Edward W. Hopkins, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 13, 1889 (1889), pp. 57-376.
  54. ^ ibid.; Mahabharata 7.112.43-45; mundanetan ....Kambojan.eva... MBH 7.119.23.
  55. ^ Ashva.yuddha.kushalah: Mahabharata 7.7.14; Vishnudharmotra Purana, Part II, Chapter 118; Post Gupta Polity (AD 500-700): A Study of the Growth of Feudal Elements and Rural Administration 1972, p 136, Ganesh Prasad Sinha; Wisdom in the Puranas 1969, p 64, prof Sen Sarma etc.
  56. ^ tikshnai.rashivishopamah: Mahabharata 7.112.48-49.
  57. ^ tigmavega.praharinam.
  58. ^ samana.mrityavo.
  59. ^ Kambojah Yama vaishravan.opamah: MBH 7,23.40-42.
  60. ^ damshitah krurakarmanah Kamboja yuddhadurmadah i.e lip-biting, hardy and war-intoxicated Kambojas: Mahabarata 7.119.26-28; Traditional History of India: A Digest – 1960, p 136, Govinda Krishna Pillai.
  61. ^ :Prakrit
    jaha se Kamboyanam aiiyne kanthai siya |
    assai javeyan pavre ayam havayi bahuassuye ||
    — (Uttaradhyana Sutra XI.17 20).
  62. ^ “....And such a monk practising the rigours of an ascetic for the sake of a fuller and more perfect life here and here-after-is superior to all others like a trained 'Kamboja steed' whom no noise frightens, Iike a strong irresistible elephant, like a strong bull and a proud lion ". (See ref: Jivaraja Jaina Granthmala, No. 20, JAINA VIEW OF LIFE : BY T. G. Kalghati, M.A., Ph.D. Reader in Philosophy, Karnatak University, and Principal, Karnatak Arts College, Dharwar General Editor Dr. A. N. Upadhya & Dr. H. L. Jain and Pt. Kailaschand Shastri Published by LAL CHAND HIRACHAND DOSHI Jaina Sanskriti Samraksaka Sangha, Sholapur. First Edition 1969, Second Edition 1984 [11]).
  63. ^ MBH 6/90/3-4
  64. ^
    Tatah Kambojamukhyanam nadijana.n cha vasjinam |
    Arattanam mahijana.n sindhujana.n cha sarvashah || 3 ||
    vanayujana.n shubhrana.n tatha parvatavasinam |
    ye chapare tittiraja javana vatara.nhasah || 4 ||
    (MBH 6/90/3-4)
  65. ^ verse 1/6/22
  66. ^ Arthashastra 2.30.32-34
  67. ^ Brahmanda Purana II,2.16.16
  68. ^ Manasollasa 4.4.715-30
  69. ^ Raguvamsha 4/70
  70. ^ Ancient India, p 236, Dr S. K. Aiyangar; cf: ”The world being trodden to dust with the troops of his Kambhoja horses having filled the space with the groups of his victorious standards an unequalled thunderbolt weapon in splitting the great rock, the Рапdуа king " (Mysore Inscriptions, 1983, p 263, B. Lewis (Benjamin Lewis) Rice).
  71. ^ Verse twelve of the third Asama-patra (1185 AD) reads:
    Kambojavajivrajavahnendryantabhavad valabha deva aye |
    (Kielhorn, F. (ed) Epigraphia Indica, Vol V, 1898-99, pp 184, 187)
  72. ^ Mahabharata, 12/101/5
  73. ^ Vishnudharmotra Purana attests: "The soldiers of Deccan (Daksinatya) are knowledgeable or efficient in Khadga fight, the people of Vankala are expert in archery, the hill people are at-ease in stone or sling fight (pasana-yudha), the people of Anga, Vanga and Kalinga are expert in fighting from elephants, the Kambojas, Gandharas are expert in fighting from horse (or as cavalrymen)...” (Vishnudharmotri Purana, Kh. II, Chapter 118).
  74. ^ Military Wisdom in the Puranas, 1969, p 64, Prof Sen Sarma; See also: Post-Gupta Polity (A.D. 500-750): A Study of the Growth of Feudal Elements and Rural Administration - 1972, p 136, Ganesh Prasad Sinha.
  75. ^ Post-Gupta Polity (A.D. 500-750): A Study of the Growth of Feudal Elements and Rural Administration, 1972, p 136, Ganesh Prasad Sinha.
  76. ^ MBH, 7/7/14
  77. ^ Hindu Polity, Part I & II, 1978, pp 121, 140; Dr K. P. Jayswal
  78. ^ Historie du Bouddhisme Indien, p 110, E. Lamotte; also see: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; History of Panjab, Vol I, Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Joshi; Ancient Kamboja, People and country, 1981, pp 271-72, 278, Dr J. L. Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119, 192, K. S. Dardi. Dr J. W. McCrindle, Dr Romila Thapar, Dr R. C. Majumdar etc also think that Ashvakas were Kamboja people
  79. ^ Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180; Alexander's Invasion of India, p 38; J. W. McCrindle; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, A Critical Study, 1972, p 179 Dr M. R. Singh; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, Vol-I, 1966, p 243, William Smith, Phillip Smith; Geographical Dictionary of ancient and Medieval India, Dr Nundo Lal Dey; Itihaas Parvesh, 1948, Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 118, Dr Kamboj etc.
  80. ^ Panjab Past and Present, pp 9-10; also see: History of Porus, pp 12, 38, Dr Buddha Parkash
  81. ^ Diodorus in McCrindle, p 270
  82. ^ Writes Diodorus: "Undismayed by the greatness of their danger, the Ashvakayanas drew their ranks together in the form of a ring within which they placed their women and childern to guard them on all sides against their assailants. As they had now become desperate, and by their audacity and feats of valour, made the conflict in which they closed, hot work for the enemy--great was the astonishment and alarm which the peril of the crisis had created. For, as the combatants were locked together fighting hand-to-hand, death and wounds were dealt round in every variety of form. While many were thus wounded, and not a few killed, the women, taking the arms of the fallen, fought side by side with their men. Accordingly, some of them who had supplied themselves with arms, did their best to cover their husbands with their shields, while the others, who were without arms, did much to impede the enemy by flinging themselves upon them and catching hold of their shields. The defenders, however, after fighting desperately along with their wives, were at last overpowered by superior numbers, and thus met a glorious death which they would have disdained to exchange for the life of dishonour" (See: Diodorus in McCrindle, p 269/270; History of Punjab, 1997, p 229, Editors: Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Joshi; Classical Accounts of India, p 112-113; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 283-286, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 134, Kirpal Singh).
  83. ^ History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p 229.
  84. ^ History of Panjab, Vol I, p 226, Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, 247, Dr J. L. Kamboj; تاريخ قوم كمبوه: جديد تحقيق كى روشنى ميں , 1996, p 170, چوهدرى محمد يوسف حسن, Cauhdrī Muhammad Yusuf Hasan; Balocistān: Siyāsī Kashmakash, Muz̤mirāt va Rujḥānāt, 1980, Munīr Aḥmad Marrī; cf: A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food (Oxford India Paperbacks), p 91, K. T. Acharya February 2001.
  85. ^
    Sanskrit:
    asti tava Shaka-Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parsika-Bahlika parbhutibhih
    Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha Chandergupta Parvateshvara
    balairudidhibhiriva parchalitsalilaih samantaad uprudham Kusumpurama
    (See: Mudrarakshasa II)
  86. ^ Hindu Polity, A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p 117-121, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Ancient India, 2003, pp 839-40, Dr V. D. Mahajan; Northern India, p 42, Dr Mehta Vasisitha Dev Mohan etc
  87. ^ Sasanavamsa (P.T.S.), p. 49
  88. ^ For overlap of Kamboj/Kshatriya clan names, see Glossary of Tribes, II, p 444, fn. iii.
  89. ^ Jatt Tribes of Zira, p 138; Glossary of Tribes, II, p 444
  90. ^ See various refs like: Ancient Kamboja, people and the Country, 1981, Dr Kamboj, p 165, 248; Comprehensive History India, Vol II, p 118, Dr N. K. Shastri; Evolution of Heroic Tradition in Ancient Ounjab, Dr Buddha Parkash; Bharatbhumi aur unke Nivasi, Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar, p 313-14; Political History of Ancient India, Dr Raychaudhury, 1996, p 133 etc.
  91. ^ Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, 1904, p 14, Bombay (India: State); Also see: Indo Aryans: Contribution Towards the Elucidation of their Ancient and Medieval History, 1881, p 186-188, Rajendra Lal Mitra
  92. ^ Panjab Castes, Denzil Ibbetson, p 148; Glossary of Tribes, H. A. Rose, p 443; Jatt Tribes of Zira, 1992, p 137, S. S. Gill; Tarikh-i-Kambohan, p 302, Chouhdri Wahhab ud-Din
  93. ^ Glossary of Tribes, p 443, H. A. Rose; Panjab Castes, p 148, Denzil Ibbetson; Sidhaant Kaumudi, 1966, p 22, Acharya R. R. Pandey
  94. ^ The Sikh, A. H. Bingley, p 57; Encyclopedia of Sikh Religion & Culture, 1997, p 24, Dr Gobind Singh Mansukhani, Romesh Chander Dogra
  95. ^ Glossary of Tribes, Vol II, p 443 fn, H. A. Rose
  96. ^ Glossary of Castes, H. A. Rose, p 444; See entry at Kamboh, Punjabi Mahankosh, Bhai Kahn Singh Nabha etc
  97. ^ See: Glossary of Tribes and Castes of Punjab and North-west Frontier Province, Vol II, p 444, H. A. Rose.
  98. ^ The Tribes and Castes of the North-western Provinces and Oudh 1906, Page 119-120 William Crooke.
  99. ^ Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra und verwandtschaftliche Nachbarn, Reise-Ergebnisse und Studien – 1883, P 80, Philipp Wilhelm Adolf Bastian.
  100. ^ The Sikhs, p 57, A. H. Bingley.
  101. ^ Balocistān: siyāsī kashmakash, muzmirāt va rujhānāt 1989, p 1, Munīr Ahmad Marrī.
  102. ^ Supplementary Glossary, p 304, Sir H. M. Eliot.
  103. ^ In their writings Dr G. S. Mansukhani, R. C. Dogra, Dr J. L. Kamboj, K. S. Dardi etc. also refers to this tradition among the Muslim Kambojs claiming relationship with Royal lineage of Persia.
  104. ^ Also cf: The Indo-Aryans: Contribution Towards the Elucidation of their Ancient & Mediaeval History, 1881, p 188-89, Rajendra Lal Mitra.
  105. ^ Kai = Kaiyani = Kawi. Kawi means glory (Median: Farnah, Khotanese: Pharra)..."In Avesta, the xwarenah is called 'Kawyan', that is belonging to the Kawis or Kais. The Kais or Kawis were a partially a legendary dynasty of Eastern Iranian rulers. Xwarenah can be a creative power used by the gods or it can be a religious power. But generally it embodies the concept of good fortune. As a kind of fiery radiance, it would relate to the word for Sun (Xwar) (Old Iranian: Suvar)(hwar=to shine, xwar=to grasp)". (Malandra: 1983, p 88).
  106. ^ Kai or Kawi was a princely title in eastern Iran, or at least in the house of Zarathushtra's eventual patron, Vishtaspa. Zarathushtra attaches no pejorative connection to the title Kawi when it is applied to him. Zarathushtra eventually found a patron, the Kai/Kawi Vishtaspa, who not only espoused the new faith but protected it and helped propagate it by force of arms [12]
  107. ^ As the name Vishtaspa itself suggests, the Kai dynasty was apparently connected with the horses since Aspa in Iranian means horse. And so are the Kambojas---the Ashvakas or Aspasios/Assakenois of Arrian. Hence, the Kai ruler Vishtaspa might have been from the Ashvaka clan of the Kambojas
  108. ^ The Sikhs, p 57, A. H. Bingley
  109. ^ Glossary of Tribes, Vol I, H. A. Rose
  110. ^ The composition of the Mughal nobility, Concise Encyclopedia Britannica, Online.
  111. ^ Some Aspects of Afghan Despotism in India, 1969, pp 23, 59, Iqtidar Husain Siddiqui.
  112. ^ The Mughal Nobility Under Aurangzeb, 2002, p 21, M. Athar Ali
  113. ^ cf: Cultural History of India, 1975, p 261, A. L. Basham.
  114. ^ Aina-i-Akbari, Abu-al-Fazal, English Trans by H. Blochman, Part I, p 614.
  115. ^ Imperial Gazetteer of India, p 180, William Wilson Hunter
  116. ^ Glossary of Tribes, p 443, H. A. Rose; Panjab Castes, p 148, Denzil Ibbetson
  117. ^ Arthashastra(11/1/04)
  118. ^ Brhat Samhita(5/35)
  119. ^ Report on the revision of settlement of the Pánipat tahsil & Karnál parganah of the Karnál..., 1883, pp 1, 89; India and World War 1, 1978, p 218, DeWitt C. Ellinwood, S. D. Pradhan; The Transformation of Sikh Society, 1974, p 132, Ethne K. Marenco; Gazetteer of the Montgomery District (Sahiwal), 1883-84, 1990, p 67, Punjab (Pakistan); Report on the Revised Land Revenue Settlement of the Montgomery District in the Mooltan Division, p 49, C. A. Roe and W. E. Purser; Green Revolution, 1974, p 35, Business & Economics etc etc.
  120. ^ Panjab Castes, 1974, p 149, D. Ibbetson; Glossary, II, pp 6 & 442, H. A. Rose.
  121. ^ Origin of names of Castes and Clans, 2004,Principal Sewa Singh.
  122. ^ Out of Ashes, p60, Dr M. S. Randhawa.
  123. ^ A. H. Bingley, H. A. Rose etc
  124. ^ See: Indo Aryans: Contribution Towards the Elucidation of their Ancient and Mediaeval History, 1881, p 187, Rajendra Lal Mitra; See also: Tribes and Castes of North-western Province and Oudh, p 118, William Crooke.
  125. ^ cf also: The Sikhs, p 57, A. H. Bingley; These Kamboj People, 1979, p 192, S Kirpal Singh Dardi; See also The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 219.
  126. ^ .
    Agar kahat ul rijal uftad, azeshan uns kamgiri
    Eke Afghan, doyam Kamboh soyam badzat Kashmiri |
    Ze Afghan hila bhi ayad, ze Kamboh kina bhi ayad,
    Ze Kashmiri nami ayad bajuz andoho dilgiri ||
    — (Roebuck’s Oriental Proverbs, Part I. p. 99).
  127. ^ However, Richard F. Burton (Arabian Nights, Vol. 10, pp. 178-219) presents this proverb in the following form:
    Agar kaht-i-mardurn uftad, az ín sih jins kam gírí;
    Eki Afghán, dovvum Sindí,
    {NOTE: For "Sindí" Roebuck (Oriental Proverbs Part i. p. 99) has Kunbu (Kumboh) a Panjábi peasant and others vary the saying ad libitum.}
    siyyum badjins-i-Kashmírí:
    Trans: Though of men there be famine yet shun these three —Afghan, Sindi and rascally Kashmiri. [13]. See also [FN#404] of [14]
  128. ^ In one version of it, the three rogues stated are the Sindis, the Jats and the Kashmiris......See: Lady Burton, Arabian Nights, Vol IV, p 92; Tribes and Castes of North-western Province and Oudh, p 120, William Crooke.
  129. ^ (See: Blochman, Aina-i-Akbari, Vol I, p 399).
  130. ^ Glossaray of Tribes of Punjab and North-west Printier Province, H. A. Rose, p 444-445.
  131. ^ cf also: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 129, Dr J.L. Kamboj.
  132. ^ See also: Kamboj Itihaas, 1972, p 87-88, H. S. Thind.
  133. ^ See: Ref : The Ain-i-Akbari of Abul Fazl, Vol I, p 399, translated by Blochmann and Jarrett, Read under Shahbaz Khan.
  134. ^ Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals Part - II - P 126, Satish Chandra.
  135. ^ The Sikhs and the Wars by Reginald Holder From Panjab: Past & Present Vol IV, Part I, 1970, S. No 7, Edited by Dr Ganda Singh
  136. ^ "They (Kambojas) were not only famous for their furs and skins embroidered with threads of gold, their woolen blankets, 'their wonderful horses and their beautiful women', but by the epic period, they became especially renowned as Vedic teachers and their homeland as a seat of Brahmanical learning" (See: Hindu World, Vol I, p 520, Prof Benjamin Walker).
  137. ^ See also: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 228, Dr J. L. Kamboj; And also: Mahabharata 11.25.1-5.
  138. ^ Cf also: Kamboja was one of the sixteen countries in ancient India, noted for its beautiful women (See: A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms: With Sanskrit and English Equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali...1987, p 195, author William Edward Soothill, Lewis Hodous); (See also: A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms: With Sanskrit and English Equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali, 1995, p 195, Lewis Hodous - Reference); (and also: Entry Cam Bồ Quốc ( =Kamboja) in Buddhist Dictionary of Vietnamese-English[15]).
  139. ^ cf also: “One hundred (charming) Kamboj maidens, wearing jeweled earrings with circlets of gold upon their arms and adorned with rings and necklaces of the finest gold;one hundred elephants, snowy white, robust and broad-backed, adorned with gold and jewels, carrying their great trunks curved over their heads like plowshares, could not even begin to equal one sixteenth part of the value of one step of one circumambulation” (See: Buddhist Sanskrit Vinaya Text, Caitya-pradaksina-gatha
  140. ^ Stupa, Sacred Symbol of Enlightenment: See link: [16].
  141. ^ Mahabharata 7.23.43
  142. ^ See: Mahabharata 8.56.113-114; Mahabharata; MBH 7.92.72-76
  143. ^ Mahabharata 8/56/111
  144. ^ Mahabharata 8/56/110-114
  145. ^ Mahabharata 1/67/31
  146. ^ Ramayana 1/55/2
  147. ^ Markendeya Purana verse 57.35.
  148. ^ Markendeya 58.30-32
  149. ^ .
    nairrtyam dizi dezah Pahlava Kamboja Sindhu Sauvirah/
    hemagiri Sindhu Kalaka Raivataka surastra Badara Dravidah/
    — (Brhatsamhita 14/17-19).
    See also: India as Seen in the Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira, 1969, Dr A. M. Shastri, Reader in Ancient Indian History & Culture, Nagpur University
  150. ^ Ed. F. W. Thomas, pp 20-22.
  151. ^ Indian Historical Quarterly, XXVI-2, 1950, p 127
  152. ^ V. D. I.9.6.
  153. ^ Geographical. Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 163, 206
  154. ^ .
    sorata gurjara kachcha-kamboja-gauda rukha:
    — (Raajbilaas 1/122)
  155. ^ Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 127; Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, p 305.
  156. ^ Pulinda Ashmaka Jimuta Narrashtara nivasinah/ Carnata Kamboja Ghata dakshinapathvasinah// (Garuda Purana 1/15/13).
  157. ^ e.g: "The people of Pulinda, Ashmaka and Jimutanya, as well Kambhojas, Karnatas and Ghatas are Dakshinapathvasi (i.e live in southern quarter); the people of Amvasthas, Dravidias, Lattas, Kambojas, Strimukhas, Sakas and Anarthas (Anartas) are Nairritis (i.e live in south-west quarter)"...See Garuda Purana, Trans: Manmatha Nath Dutt, 1908, p 148.
  158. ^ Indian Historically Quarterly, 1963, p 127.
  159. ^ Ancient India, p 7, S. K. Aiyangar; Public Administration in Ancient India, p 56, P. N. Banerjee
  160. ^ Ancient India, III, pp 94, 125, Dr T. L. Shah
  161. ^ Sind, p 44, M. R. Lamrick.

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