Johns Hopkins Hospital
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The Johns Hopkins Hospital is a teaching hospital in Baltimore, Maryland (USA). It was founded using money from a bequest by philanthropist Johns Hopkins. It is widely regarded as one of the world's greatest hospitals, and it has topped U.S. News and World Report's ranking of American hospitals for 17 consecutive years (as of 2007) [1].
The hospital's main medical campus in East Baltimore is served by the easternmost station on the Baltimore Metro Subway.
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[edit] History
Johns Hopkins, a Baltimore merchant and banker, left an estate of $7 million when he died on Christmas Eve 1873, at the age of seventy-eight. In his will, he asked that his fortune be used to found two institutions that would bear his name: "The Johns Hopkins University" and "The Johns Hopkins Hospital." At the time that it was made, Hopkins' gift was the largest philanthropic bequest in the history of the United States. Towards the end of his life, Hopkins selected twelve prominent Baltimoreans to be the trustees for the project and a year before his death, sent a letter telling them that he was giving "thirteen acres of land, situated in the city of Baltimore, and bounded by Wolfe, Monument, Broadway and Jefferson streets upon which I desire you to erect a hospital." He wished for a hospital "which shall, in construction and arrangement, compare favorably with any other institution of like character in this country or in Europe" and directed his trustees to "secure for the service of the Hospital, physicians and surgeons of the highest character and greatest skill." [1]
Most importantly, Hopkins told the trustees to "bear constantly in mind that it is my wish and purpose that the [hospital] shall ultimately form a part of the Medical School of that university for which I have made ample provision in my will." By calling for this integral relationship between patient care, as embodied in the hospital, and teaching and research, as embodied in the university, Hopkins laid the groundwork for a revolution in American medicine. Johns Hopkins' vision, of two institutions in which the practice of medicine would be wedded to medical research and medical education was nothing short of revolutionary.
Hopkins medicine counts many "firsts" among its achievements during its early years: the first major medical school in the United States to admit women; the first to use rubber gloves during surgery; the first to develop renal dialysis and CPR.
Two of the most far-reaching advances in medicine during the last 25 years were made at Hopkins. The Nobel Prize-winning discovery of restriction enzymes [2] gave birth to the genetic engineering industry and can be compared, some say, to the first splitting of an atom. Also, the discovery of the brain's natural opiates has triggered an explosion of interest in neurotransmitter pathways and functions. Other accomplishments include the identification of the three types of polio virus and the first "blue baby" operation in 1944 [3], which opened the way to modern heart surgery. Hopkins also was the birthplace of many medical specialties, including neurosurgery, urology, endocrinology, and pediatrics. Additionally it was at Johns Hopkins that Leo Kanner wrote his 1943 paper providing the first description of autism.
[edit] Revolution in American medicine
At the end of the 19th century, American medical education was in chaos; most medical schools were little more than trade schools, established primarily to turn a profit, often accepting high school graduates who would have had trouble getting into a liberal arts college. After two, at most three, years of attending typically repetitious lectures by part-time teachers, students were free to apprentice themselves to older doctors or simply hang out a shingle, even if they had never laid a hand on a patient. With the opening of The Johns Hopkins Hospital in 1889, followed four years later by The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, a new era in medical education began, marked by rigid entrance requirements for entering students, a vastly upgraded medical school curriculum with emphasis on the scientific method, the incorporation of bedside teaching and laboratory research as part of the instruction, and integration of the School of Medicine with the Hospital through joint appointments. The new model also created standardized advanced training in specialized fields of medicine with the creation of the first house staff fellowships and post graduate internships.
To wage this revolution, Hopkins recruited four impressive young physicians, William H. Welch, William Osler, William S. Halsted, and Howard Kelly - the so-called Big Four - by offering them rare and tempting research opportunities. The basic scientists and later the clinicians were free to do research by having a full-time salary, a departure from the tradition of employing part-time local practitioners to teach classes.
Another innovation assured higher quality applicants: rigid entrance examinations after prerequisite college education, heavy on basic science -- chemistry, physics, biology -- and rigid entrance examinations, were expected of all students who ventured into a Hopkins medical school classroom.
Classes were small and involved hands-on training with patients, a departure from the old lecture format. From the start, talented women were permitted to enroll, breaking a prohibition that many older schools held for decades. Medical research by both faculty and students was fostered as part of the educational process and as integral to patient care. The "clinician-scientist" became a Hopkins hallmark.
Study was rigorous and lasted four years, including unprecedented hours of bedside learning at the side of experts, original research projects guided by respected clinicians, and extensive laboratory training. Then came postgraduate education in the Hospital for interns and residents, an innovation that became the model for the postgraduate clinical education of the 20th century. Hopkins' "products" soon were in demand across the country.
The Hopkins reforms in American medical education were pushed further after 1910, when the Carnegie Foundation asked educator Abraham Flexner to survey the 150 medical schools then operating in the United States and Canada. Flexner found only five that he thought were adequate, and he held up Hopkins as the model.
"The influence of this new foundation can hardly be overstated," Flexner wrote. "It has finally cleared up the problem of standards and ideas and its graduates have gone forth in small bands to found new institutions or to reconstruct old ones."
In fact, Washington University, Vanderbilt University, Iowa, Duke, and Rochester universities patterned their medical schools directly after Hopkins; Duke went so far as to hire all but one of its first chairmen and chiefs of service from the Hopkins faculty.
In turn, Johns Hopkins had modeled itself largely after German universities, where medical science was highly valued and laboratories were well equipped. Few facilities like this were available in the United States in the late 19th century, but slowly, with Hopkins in the vanguard, the belief spread that medicine would not advance unless doctors were firmly grounded in basic science and applied research methods to the study of disease.
It was perhaps fortunate that the opening of The Johns Hopkins Hospital was delayed for 13 years after the opening of the University in 1876. These years gave Daniel Coit Gilman, the University's first president, a chance to get a program of postgraduate education well established.
The delay also gave William H. Welch, the first professor at the School of Medicine, time to get Pathology up and running before the wards opened. The emphasis on research was well established before a single patient was admitted. The bacteriologic era came into full bloom during those years, as well. Robert Koch discovered the tuberculosis organism in 1881, launching a new awareness of the role of germs in disease, which strongly influenced the practice of medicine.
The School of Medicine opened four years after the Hospital and, in retrospect, this gap, too, was an advantage, for it gave the innovative residency system time to get firmly established. When the first medical students came along, they could easily be incorporated into the wards. One other great benefit emerged from the delays. They gave William Osler the time he needed to write his classic textbook, The Principles and Practice of Medicine.
For years, Hopkins has been the top medical school in the amount of competitive research grants awarded by the National Institutes of Health.
See also: Johns Hopkins University
[edit] External links
[edit] References
- ^ Harvey, A.M., Brieger, G.H., Abrams, S. L., McKusick, V.A., A Model of Its Kind, A Centennial History of Medicine at Johns Hopkins, Johns Hopkins University Press (Baltimore) 1989.
- ^ Facts and Figures 2004-2005, Page 45. Johns Hopkins Medicine 2005. http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/about/factsfigures05.pdf
- ^ Facts and Figures 2004-2005, page 33. Johns Hopkins Medicine 2005. http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/about/factsfigures05.pdf
