Jean-Jacques Dessalines
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Jean-Jacques Dessalines (September 20, 1758–October 17, 1806) was a leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first ruler of an independent Haiti under the dictatorial 1801 constution. He was autocratic in his rule and crowned himself Emperor of Haiti in 1805.[1]
He began as Governor-General and later Emperor Jacques I of Haiti (1804–1806). He is remembered as one of the founding fathers of Haiti.
Dessalines served as an officer in the French army and later rose to become a commander in the revolt against the same colonial power. As Toussaint L'Ouverture's principal lieutenant, he led many successful engagements, such as the Battle of Crête-à-Pierrot, and employed brutal tactics against the enemy. After the betrayal and capture of Toussaint in 1802, Dessalines became the leader of the revolution, eventually defeating the French troops sent by Napoleon at the Battle of Vertières in 1803. He declared Haiti an independent nation in 1804 and was chosen by a council of generals (blacks and mulattos) to assume the office of Governor-General. He proclaimed himself Emperor in September 1804 and ruled in that capacity until his assassination in 1806.
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[edit] Early life
Dessalines was born into slavery on a plantation in Cormiers (now known as Cormier), near the town of Grande-Rivière-du-Nord in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now known as Haiti). The identity of his parents is not known. His only known family member was an aunt, Victoria Montou, whom he affectionately called "Toya". Victoria Montou remained close to her nephew until her death in 1805.
Dessalines served on the plantation of a Frenchman named Henry Duclos until he was about 30 years old. During this time, Dessalines was known as Jacques Duclos; his last name taken from his master, as was custom. He was then bought by a free black man named Dessalines, from whom he received his name. The master Dessalines treated Jean-Jacques well. After being declared Governor-for-Life in 1804, Jean-Jacques Dessalines took his old master Dessalines into his house and gave him a job. Jean-Jacques Dessalines was in the service of his master Dessalines for about three years, until 1791.
[edit] Revolution
In 1791, Jean-Jacques Dessalines joined the slave rebellion led by Jean François and Georges Biassou. This rebellion was the first action of what would become the Haitian Revolution. Dessalines became a lieutenant in Jean François' army and followed François when he fought in the service of Spain. It was then that Dessalines met the rising military commander Toussaint Bréda (later known as Toussaint L'Ouverture). In 1794, after the French declared an end to slavery, Toussaint switched allegiances and began fighting for the French against both the Spanish and British. Dessalines followed, becoming Toussaint's chief lieutenant and rising to the rank of brigadier general by 1799. He commanded many successful engagements, including the captures of Jacmel, Petit Goâve, Miragoane and Anse-à-Veau. In 1801, Dessalines quickly ended an insurrection in the north led by Toussaint's own nephew, General Moyse. Dessalines gained a reputation for following a "take no prisoners" policy, and for burning homes and entire cities to the ground.
The rebellious slaves were able to restore most of Saint-Domingue to France, with Toussaint in control. Toussaint did not wish to surrender his power to Paris, and instead issued a constitution for Saint-Domingue which provided for autonomy and made himself governor-for-life. The French responded by dispatching an expeditionary force to the island, led by Charles Leclerc, to restore French rule. Dessalines fought against the invading French forces, defeating them at the battle for which he is most famous, Crête-à-Pierrot. During the 11 March 1802 battle, Dessalines and his 1,300 men defended a small fort against 18,000 attackers. To motivate his troops at the start of the battle, he waved a lit torch near an open powder keg and declared that he would blow the fort up should the French break through. The defenders inflicted heavy casualties on the attacking army, but after a twenty-day siege they were forced to abandon the fort due to a shortage of food and munitions. The rebels were able to force their way through the enemy lines and into the Cahos Mountains, with their army still largely intact.
The French soldiers under Leclerc were accompanied by mulatto troops led by the Haitians Alexandre Pétion and André Rigaud. Pétion and Rigaud had opposed Toussaint's relentless ambition but been defeated by his forces three years earlier. After the Battle of Crête-à-Pierrot, Dessalines defected from his long-time ally Toussaint and briefly sided with Leclerc, Pétion, and Rigaud. When it became clear that the French intended to re-establish slavery, Dessalines and Pétion switched sides again, in October 1802. The brutal tactics of Leclerc's successor, Rochambeau, helped to unify the rebel forces against the French. Dessalines, the leader of the revolution since Toussaint's capture on 7 June 1802, commanded the rebel forces against a French army weakened by yellow fever. His forces achieved a series of victories against the French, culminating in the last major battle of the revolution, the Battle of Vertières. On 18 November 1803, black and mulatto forces under Dessalines and Pétion attacked the fort of Vertières, held by Rochambeau, near Cap François in the north. Rochambeau and his troops surrendered the next day. On 4 December 1803, the French colonial army of Napoleon Bonaparte ceded its last remaining territory to Dessalines' forces, officially ending the only successful slave rebellion in world history.[2]
[edit] Emperor
On 1 January 1804, from the city of Gonaïves, Dessalines officially declared the former colony's independence, renaming it "Haiti" after the indigenous Arawak name. He had served as Governor-General of Saint-Domingue from 30 November 1803 to 31 December 1803. After the declaration of independence, he became Governor-General-for-life of Haiti and served in that role until 22 September 1804, when he proclaimed himself Emperor of Haiti. He was crowned Emperor Jacques I in a coronation ceremony on 6 October in the city of Cap. On 20 May 1805, the Imperial Constitution of 1805 was released, naming Jean-Jacques Dessalines emperor for life with the right to name his successor.
Dessalines tried very hard to keep the sugar industry and plantations running and producing without slavery.
Dessalines, who had been born a slave, held a grudge against French people. Once in power he demanded that all of the remaining French be massacred in revenge for centuries of barbarism and a constant menace to re-impose slavery on the black nation of Haiti. Dessalines declared Haiti an all black nation and forbade whites from ever again owning property or land there. This law is still a symbol of pride in Haiti.
He also enforced a harsh regimen of plantation labour, described as caporalisme agraire (agrarian militarism) by the historian Michel-Rolph Trouillot. Dessalines demanded that all blacks either work as soldiers to protect the nation or laborers in the plantations or fields.
Dessalines also believed in the tight regulation of foreign trade, which however was essential for Haiti's sugar- and coffee-based export economy. Dessalines favoured merchants from Britain and the United States over those from France.
For his administration, Dessalines needed literate and educated officials and managers. He placed in these positions well-educated Haitians who were disproportionately from the light-skinned elite.
[edit] Death and legacy
Disaffected members of Dessalines' administration, including Alexandre Pétion and Henri Christophe, began a conspiracy to overthrow the Emperor. Dessalines was assassinated north of the capital city, Port-au-Prince, at Pont Larnage, (now known as Pont-Rouge) on October 17, 1806 on his way to fight the rebels. Some historians claim that he was actually killed at Pétion's house at Rue l'Enterrement after a meeting to negotiate the power and the future of the young nation. A monument at the northern entrance of the Haitian capital marks the place where the Emperor was killed.
A woman from humble background, Défilée, took the mutilated body of the Emperor to bury him. Reviled by generations of Haitians, Dessalines gained a new and more prestigious profile as an icon of Haitian nationalism at the beginning of the 20th century.
The national anthem of Haiti, La Dessalinienne, is named in his honor, as is the city of Dessalines.
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ Independent Haiti. Retrieved on 2006-11-27.
- ^ Chapter 6 - Haiti: Historical Setting. Country Studies. Library of Congress. Retrieved on 2006-09-18.
- TiCam (2006-09-27). October 17: Death of Dessalines. haitiwebs.com. Retrieved on 2006-10-16.
- Schutt-Ainé, Patricia; Staff of Librairie Au Service de la Culture (1994). Haiti: A Basic Reference Book. Miami, Florida: Librairie Au Service de la Culture, 33-35, 60. ISBN 0-9638599-0-0.
