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Germans expelled from the Sudetenland
Germans expelled from the Sudetenland

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The expulsion of Germans after World War II refers to the flight and mass deportation of people considered Germans (Reichsdeutsche and some Volksdeutsche) from various European states and territories from 1945 to 1948.

The first stage of the exodus, which cost many lives, was the chaotic evacuation of the civilians and prisoners, organised by German authorities. The deportation that followed of those who remained or returned after the end of active warfare, which in most areas coincided with Soviet occupation, were purportedly intended to create ethnically homogeneous nation states. Later, in early August 1945, the mass transfer of Germans to post-war Germany was approved by the 1945 Potsdam Conference, which called for the resettlement to be conducted in an orderly and humane manner. The expulsions that followed were larger, better organized and less lethal compared to those before the conference, although they were still far from humane.

The majority of the expulsions occurred in areas belonging to Czechoslovakia, Poland and the Soviet Union after the war. Others occurred in territories of modern day Hungary, Serbia (predominantly in the Vojvodina region), Lithuania, Slovenia and other regions of Central and Eastern Europe. Those who either fled or were expelled included both German citizens, (some of whom had gained their German citizenship during Nazi occupation) and people considered ethnic Germans as well as those wishing to escape from communist regimes.

The expulsion took place in a postwar period that was marked by the contemporaneous forced resettlement and expulsion of millions of Poles, Romanians/Moldovans, Kashubians, Ukrainians, Hungarians and Jews throughout Eastern Europe. According to Allied sources [citation needed] revealed after 1990, the migration of ethnic Germans affected up to 16.5 million people and was the largest of several post-World War II migrations orchestrated by the victorious Western Allies and the Soviet Union.

Over the course of almost sixty years since the end of the expulsion, the estimates of the number of deaths inflicted in the process have ranged from 500,000 to as high as 3 million. Many of these were the result of ill-prepared German evacuation and chaotic flight. Others were senseless killings by opportunistic mobs and individuals, or were caused by the privations of a forced migration in a postwar environment characterized by crime, chaos, famine, disease, and cold winter conditions. There were also incidents of direct, intentional actions of violent militias. It is almost impossible to attribute accurate proportions of deaths to specific causes.

One estimate of population transfers and associated deaths depended upon a "population balance" methodology, because there are no records that can differentiate between civilians who were forced from their homes and which ones fled before the advancing Red Army. To make it even harder to determine a definitive number, many of those who fled returned to their homes before being expelled again.

More than half a century later, relations between unified Germany and its East European neighbours remain somewhat difficult due to a heated and emotional controversy concerning the morality of the expulsions and the rights of expellees (the "Heimatvertriebene"). Much of the tension is exacerbated by the demands of some groups of expellees or their descendants for compensation for lost properties. Underlying this controversy are also disagreements about who was responsible for the expulsions, what the motivations were, and whether the expulsions were morally justified.

[edit] Background

Part of the motivation behind the expulsions is based on events in the history of Germany and Europe, especially Eastern Europe. Colonization and migrations that took place over almost a millennium led to pockets of Germans living throughout Eastern Europe as far east as Russia. The existence of these pockets was used by the Nazis to justify their demands for Lebensraum, which eventually led to the Second World War. During the German occupation of Europe, most of the ethnic Germans applied for German citizenship, and many held important positions in the hierarchy of Nazi administration.[citation needed] The expulsions of ethnic Germans at the end of the war was a part of negotiated agreements between the victorious Allies to redraw national borders and arrangements for orderly population transfers to remove the ethnic minorities that were viewed as troublesome. For the bulk of expulsions, from territories transferred to Poland and Czechoslovakia, the motivation was also to compensate those countries for land taken from both by the USSR, ultimately serving no purpose other than to enlarge Soviet territory.

[edit] Chronology of the expulsions

If the participants of the Potsdam Conference envisioned "orderly population transfers", the reality on the ground turned out to be anything but that. Any transfer of millions of people is likely to be difficult even in the best of circumstances. Attempting a forced transfer amidst the chaos, destruction and privation of postwar Europe could only result in a humanitarian catastrophe.

The Potsdam Agreement called for equal distribution of the transferred Germans between American, British, French and Soviet occupation zones in the post World War II Germany. In actuality, nearly twice as many expelled Germans found refuge in the occupation zones that later formed "West Germany" than in the "East Germany" (Soviet Zone), and large numbers of German refugees eventually emigrated to other countries of the world, including the United States, Canada, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, and Chile.

As part of the nationalization that all citizens in communist countries faced, property in the affected territory that belonged to Germany and Germans was confiscated and transferred to the Soviet Union, nationalized or redistributed among the local population.

It is worth noting that the expulsion was not always indiscriminate. In Czechoslovakia, large numbers of skilled Sudeten German workmen were forced to remain to labour for the country [1]. Likewise in the Opole (Oppeln) region in Upper Silesia, natives who were considered "autochthonous" (German minority in Poland) were allowed to stay. Their status as a national minority was accepted in 1955, alongside with the state's help in regard to economic assistance, and education.[1]

[edit] Czechoslovakia

See also: History of Czechoslovakia, Beneš decrees, Sudetenland, Ústí massacre.

Before the 1938 German annexation of the Sudetenland, roughly 20% of the population in Czechoslovakia had been ethnic Germans. [2] Ethnic German nationalists backed by Hitler demanded the union of German-speaking districts with Germany. Threatening war, Hitler seized through the Munich Agreement in September 1938 the cession of the Bohemian, Moravian and Czech-Silesian borderlands - Sudetenland. In November 1938, Czechoslovakia was forced by Germany and Italy also to cede southern Slovakia (one third of Slovak territory) to Hungary. The Czechs in the greatly weakened Czechoslovak Republic were forced to grant major concessions to the non-Czechs. Eventually Germany seized all of Czechoslovakia.

At the end of World War II, Czechoslovakian president Edvard Beneš advocated a policy of "no mercy" toward the Germans and indicated the "German problem" would have to be solved by transfers/expulsion. Germans living in the border regions of Czechoslovakia were expelled from the country in late 1945. Several thousand died violently during the expulsion and many more died from hunger and illness as a consequence. In 1946, an estimated 1.3 million ethnic Germans were deported to the American zone of what would become West Germany. An estimated 800,000 were deported to the Soviet zone (in what would become East Germany). [2]

Some of the acts of violence perpetrated against ethnic Germans inside Czechoslovakia, which at first sight appeared to be cases of personal enmity of locals were, in fact, planned operations. There were cases of massacres committed by paramilitary groups (technically illegal but with strong ties to the ruling Communist party), where the operations were done with the prior agreement of the Red Army, and probably planned under supervision of the Communist party and/or even operatives of the Czech government. It has been suggested that the motivation for these staged acts of purportedly spontaneous violence against ethnic Germans was to provide arguments to the participants of the Potsdam conference that would support the need for expulsions. The putative line of reasoning was as follows: you can see the ethnic violence - population transfers are the humane way to put an end to it. However, in other instances, the authorities stopped on-going "genuine local" mob violence.

In the summer of 1945 there were a number of incidents and localised massacres of the German population. The following examples are described in a study done by the European University Institute in Florence:[2]

  • In the Prerov incident, 71 men, 120 women and 74 children, who were Slovak Germans just passing through Prerov railway station, were taken out of the train, taken outside of the city to a hill named "Svedske sance", there they were forced to dig their own graves and all were shot.
  • 30,000 Germans were forced to leave their homes in Brno for labour camps near Austria. They were beaten and it is estimated that several hundred died in the death march.
  • Estimates of killed in the Ústí massacre range from 30 - 50 to 600 - 700 civilians. Some women and children were thrown off the bridge into the Elbe River and shot.

Another source[3] also tells of a massacre in Postoloprty and a neighbouring area, where 763 people were shot, and estimates the victims from Brno to 800. Approximately 10,000 died in "internment camps" in the years 1945-1948[4]

On 8 May 1946 the Czech provisional National Assembly passed Law No. 115. It is one of the most controversial laws enacted in conjunction with the Beneš decrees as it specifies that "Any act committed between September 30, 1938 and October 28, 1945, the object of which was to aid the struggle for liberty of the Czechs and Slovaks or which represented just reprisals for actions of the occupation forces and their accomplices, is not illegal, even when such acts may otherwise be punishable by law."

This law, which still has effect, has ensured that no atrocities against Germans during the time-period in question have been prosecuted in Czechoslovakia. However, the Czech government did express its regret in 1997.[3]

  • III. "The Czech side regrets that, by the forcible expulsion and forced resettlement of Sudeten Germans from the former Czechoslovakia after the war as well as by the expropriation and deprivation of citizenship, much suffering and injustice was inflicted upon innocent people, also in view of the fact that guilt was attributed collectively. It particularly regrets the excesses which were contrary to elementary humanitarian principles as well as legal norms existing at that time, and it furthermore regrets that Law No. 115 of 8 May 1946 made it possible to regard these excesses as not being illegal and that in consequence these acts were not punished."

Estimates of casualties range between 20,000 and 200,000 people, depending on the source. Most of the victims died in internment camps or during the long marches. [4]

[edit] Hungary

In Hungary the persecution of the German minority began on 22 December 1944 when the Soviet Commander-in-Chief ordered the deportations. Five percent of the German population (appr. 20,000 people) had been evacuated by the Volksbund before that. They went to Austria, but many of them returned to their homes next spring. In January 1945 the Soviet Army collected 32 000 ethnic Germans and deported them to the Soviet Union to do slave labour. Many of them died there as a result of the hardships and cruelties. On 29 December 1945, the new Hungarian Government ordered the deportation of every person who had declared him/herself German in the 1941 census, or was a member of the Volksbund, the SS or any other armed German organisation. In accordance with this decree, mass deportations began. The first wagon departed from Budaörs (Wudersch) on 19 January 1946 with 5788 people. Some 185,000 to 200,000 German-speaking Hungarian citizens were deprived of their rights and all possessions, and deported to West Germany. Until July 1948, further 50,000 people were deported to the Eastern zone of Germany. Most of the deported Germans found a new home in the Western provinces of Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria and Hesse. In 1947 and 1948, a forced population exchange took place between Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Some 74,000 ethnic Hungarians were deported from Slovakia in exchange for about the same number of Slovaks from Hungary. They and the Székelys of Bukovina were settled in the former German villages of southeastern Transdanubia. In some parts of Tolna, Baranya and Somogy counties, the original population was totally replaced by the new settlers. In 1949, only 22,455 people dared to declare themselves German, although the real numbers were certainly higher. Probably half of the German community was able to survive the dark years between 1944 and 1950 in Hungary.

[edit] Poland

On February 6, 1945, the Soviet NKVD ordered mobilization of all German men (17 to 50 years old) in the Soviet-controlled territories. Many of them were then transported to Soviet Union for forced labour. In the former German territories, the Soviet authorities did not always distinguish between Poles and Germans, often treating them alike.[5] The final decision to move Poland's boundary westward was made by Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States at the Yalta Conference, shortly before the end of the war. The precise location of the border was left open but the Allies accepted in general the principle of the Oder River as the future western border of Poland. At the Yalta conference, population transfers were agreed upon as the way to prevent future border disputes like those that caused World War II.

[edit] Pre-Potsdam Expulsions (May-July 1945)

A neglected German graveyard west of Warsaw
A neglected German graveyard west of Warsaw

In 1945, the former German Silesian, Pommeranian and East-Prussian territories were occupied by Polish and Russian military forces. Early expulsions in Poland were undertaken by the Polish communist military authorities already before the Potsdam Conference. To ensure their annexation by Poland, the Polish Communist Government, backed by the Soviets, ordered that Germans were to be expelled. Germans were defined as either Reichsdeutsche, people enlisted in 1st or 2nd Volksliste groups, and those of the 3rd group, who held German citizenship.

The early phase of expulsion was often particularly brutal. Historians disagree as to the number of Germans deported during this phase of expulsion. The estimates range from 300 thousand to 500 thousand people.[citations needed] Most of the Germans evacuated during the war were not allowed to return to their homes and their remaining property was confiscated.[citation needed]

[edit] Post-July 1945 expulsion in Stettin

The Soviet Union transferred territories to the east of the Oder-Neisse Line to Poland in July 1945. These territories included the city of Stettin (which was renamed Szczecin) with the exception of the harbour, which the Soviet authorities dismantled and transferred to the Soviet Union until October 1948. After July 1945, most Germans were expelled to the territories west of the Oder-Neisse Line. Stettin was crowded with German expellees already before the transfer, who were then forced to leave for post-war Germany.

In Stettin, there were tense conflicts between the Soviet and the Polish administrative authorities, which were competing for control of the city. As a result, Polish officials faced great challenges and even risks in expelling Germans. From the Polish perspective, the Soviets protected Germans so as to exploit their labour. In the harbour area for example, the Soviets sanctioned German schools for the children of German workers. The Poles thus blamed the Soviets for the problems that they perceived to be engendered by the continued presence of Germans in the province. [5]

[edit] Polish enclave in Emsland

An enclave of Polish military existed in Emsland from 1945-1947 with the centre in Haren, called Maczków. The German populace were temporarily transferred out to make room for the Poles.

[edit] Yugoslavia

[edit] Romania

[edit] Slovenia

[edit] Russia

See also: Evacuation of East Prussia

Having been the capital of the Kingdom of Prussia, Königsberg (now renamed Kaliningrad) was an important city in the history of Germany. Under the Nazis, it was a part of the East Prussia province (Gau), which itself had been an German exclave between 1918 and 1939.

Many of the Germans from East Prussia were evacuated by Nazi authorities or fled in panic before the Soviet Army arrived. Those who remained suffered the terror of the Soviet occupation. After the war, all the surviving Germans were expelled and the region was settled by Russians and the families of military staff. The expelled Germans mostly headed to the territory of what became West Germany. [citation needed]

Today, the area, named Kaliningrad Oblast, is an exclave of Russia, separated from the rest of the country by Lithuania and Belarus.

[edit] Lithuania

A part of western Lithuania, along the sea coast was annexed by Nazi Germany as Memelland in 1939, shortly before the outbreak of the war. The area, including Klaipėda (German: Memel), an important Baltic sea port, had been part of East Prussia, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and then German Empire until the Treaty of Versailles.

After the war, the area belonged to the Soviet Union, (which included occupied Lithuania). Most of its German inhabitants fled to Germany, joining the exodus of the others from Königsberg and other Eastern Prussian cities. German civilian remnants were put on deportation trains in 1946. Ethnic Lithuanians and Russians from other areas of the Soviet Union replaced the German population. A number of orphaned German children were too small to go on the long trek as refugees on their own, and thus were taken in by Lithuanian families.

[edit] The Netherlands

Main article: Operation Black Tulip

After World War II the Dutch wanted to expel 25 000 Germans living in the Netherlands. The Germans (who often had Dutch wives and children) were called 'hostile subjects' (Dutch: vijandelijke onderdanen). The operation started on 10 September 1946 in Amsterdam, where Germans and their families were taken from their homes in the middle of the night and given one hour to collect 50 kg of luggage. They were allowed to take 100 Guilders with them. The rest of their possessions went to the Dutch state. They were taken to concentration camps near the German border, the biggest of which was Mariënbosch near Nijmegen.

The allied forces that occupied western Germany opposed this operation for fear that other countries might follow suit and western Germany was not in an economic condition to receive such a large number of migrants. The British troops in Germany reacted by evicting 100,000 Dutch citizens in Germany to the Netherlands.

The operation ended in 1948. On 26 July 1951 the state of war between the Netherlands and Germany officially ended and the Germans were no longer regarded as state enemies.

[edit] Norway

see War children

[edit] France

A number of Germans were expelled from Alsace and Lorraine. Some inhabitants of Kehl were forced to leave, when the city was French (1945-1949). Polish soldiers in Western Germany reported rapes committed by French soldiers.

[edit] Controversy over reasons and justifications for the expulsions

Given the complex history of the region and the divergent interests of the victorious Allied powers, it is difficult to ascribe a definitive set of motivations behind the expulsions. Various groups, including the public in affected countries and historians, perceive the reasons for the Potsdam decision and subsequent transfers differently. The key issues that motivated the expulsions include:

  1. Compensation to Poland for territories occupied by the Soviet Union
  2. A desire to consolidate the new borders by creating ethnically homogeneous nation states
  3. Distrust of and enmity towards German communities
  4. Prevention of ethnic violence between majority populations and German minorities
  5. A desire to punish ethnic German minorities for activities in support of the Nazi invasion
  6. A desire to expel ethnic Germans in the hopes of invalidating German territorial claims
  7. Making room for Polish returnees
  8. Making the future Polish state dependent on Soviet Union
  9. Appropriation of German property left behind by the expellees
  10. An attempt to restore pre-Nazi demographics in the areas where native populations were displaced by Nazi ethnic cleansing and expansion.

[edit] Compensation for territories lost to the Soviet Union

Poland lost 43 percent of its pre-war territory due to the fact that the Soviet Union insisted on keeping what it had annexed as a result of the partition of Poland between Germany and the Soviet Union in 1939. While some cities, like Gdańsk (Danzig), were transferred to Poland as part of the "clean sweep" (see below) that eliminated minorities and strategically risky borders, other cities, like Wrocław (Breslau) or Szczecin (Stettin), would hardly have been transferred to Poland had it not lost Vilnius (Wilno), Hrodna (Grodno) and Lviv (Lwów).

Thus, from the perspective of the Polish, Communist and Western Allies, one justification for the expulsion of the Germans was compensation of Poland for territories taken by the Soviet Union.

Objections to this theory argue that the territories Stalin took from Poland in the east, were actually behind the Curzon Line, that was proposed to be the border after World War I, and which Poland had taken from the Soviet Union in 1922.

[edit] A desire to create ethnically homogeneous nation states

This was presented as the key reason for the official decisions of the Potsdam conference and previous allied conferences involving the Polish and Czech exile governments, as cited in this article.

There is a longer history of the Polish and Czech nations trying to assert themselves against German eastward expansionism (see also Drang nach Osten article), as well as the late compensatory nationalism of newly independent Eastern-European nation states. The border on Oder-Neisse line was actively pursued by the Polish government in Exile, which, under the pressure from the Soviet Union and its western allies, was looking for possible compensation for the Soviet-occupied eastern regions which Stalin was not willing to give back. [6]

The territories that had been handed over to Poland and Czechoslovakia by the Versailles treaty caused particular trouble to these states. Especially the Czech exile government in London insisted on a bitter lesson it had learned in 1938: no stability without ethnic homogeneity. The utter military and moral defeat of Germany provided a chance for achieving ethnic homogeneity by means normally not available. In case of Czechoslovakia, not only the Sudeten Germans but also the Hungarians of Southern Slovakia became victims of the postwar ethnic cleansing campaign.

[edit] Distrust of and enmity towards German communities in Poland

There was an expressed fear of disloyalty of Germans in Silesia and Pommerania based in part on the pro-Nazi activities of members of the German ethnic group during the war and even after the end of the war. As a result of these activities, there was not a political party that would agree with Germans continuing to live in Silesia and Pomerania. To Poles, deportation of Germans was seen as an effort to avoid such events in the future and as a result Polish authorities proposed population transfer of Germans already in the late 1941.[6] Among the reasons that Polish representatives advocated such measures was the fact that there was no Polish family that did not suffer material or family loss as a result of German aggression. Thus transferring the German-speaking population to the west was advocated as a necessary means of achieving inter-ethnic peace. Some of the terror activities of military organisation called Wehrwolf in Summer 1945 were presented as arguments for a needed orderly transfer of Germans[citation needed].

[edit] Preventing ethnic violence

The participants at the Potsdam Conference asserted the expulsions were the only way to prevent ethnic violence. As Winston Churchill expounded in the House of Commons in 1944, "Expulsion is the method which, in so far as we have been able to see, will be the most satisfactory and lasting. There will be no mixture of populations to cause endless trouble... A clean sweep will be made. I am not alarmed by these transferences, which are more possible in modern conditions…". From this point of view the policy achieved its goals: the 1945 borders are stable and ethnic conflicts are relatively marginal.

[edit] Retribution

One justification offered for the expulsions is that the actual purpose of the policy was to punish the Germans for Germany's actions during World War II, including its expulsion of Poles and Czechs from territories annexed to Nazi Germany; and at the same time to create ethnically homogeneous nation states that would not give rise to the kind of ethnic tensions that had preceded the war.

From this perspective, the expulsions were viewed as an act of historical justice, because, for example, some Sudeten Germans strongly contributed to the destruction of pre-war Czechoslovakia. The Czech public opinion saw this act as betrayal. The Nazi occupation forces had planned to kill, deport, or enslave the Russian and other Slavic populations, whom they considered inferior (Untermensch), and to repopulate the land with German peoples. The entire urban population was to be exterminated by starvation, thus creating an agricultural surplus to feed Germany and allowing their replacement by a German upper class.

Also, there was little empathy for German victims after the World War II experience, especially since the German government had itself ethnically cleansed a large number of areas (e.g. Reichsgau Wartheland) during the war.

[edit] Invalidating German territorial claims

According to one argument, the purpose of expelling Germans from areas now belonging to other countries was to invalidate German territorial claims to the land. The purported objective was to prevent a repetition of what happened in the Sudetenland where the Nazis based territorial claims based upon the large number of ethnic Germans living there.

[edit] Making room for Polish returnees

Even before former German territories were captured by the Red Army, around 2 million Poles from eastern Poland (behind the Curzon line) were expelled by the Soviets to western Poland or deported to gulag camps in Siberia. Additionally, an estimated 800,000 people from Warsaw were deported by the Germans to special work camps. After the end of the war, these people returned and needed housing in a country devastated by war. According to this line of reasoning, Germans were expelled to make housing available for the returnees.

[edit] Making the future Polish state dependent on the Soviet Union

Never stated as the official reason, some believe that one of the Soviet motivations for the expulsions was to make the Polish state more dependent on the Soviet Union protection against potential future German demands.

[edit] Material gains from the German property left behind by the expellees

Polish communist administration often purposefully did not inform the Germans intended for deportation about their scheduled transport time until 24 hours before the departure. It has been alleged that the reason for this was to make it more difficult for the Germans to organize the transport of their property.[7]

[edit] A restoration of pre-Nazi Eastern European demographics

Part of Nazi Germany's long term policy was to create a "Greater Germany" which was to be built by means of removing a variety of non-Germans throughout Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and other areas in Eastern Europe. Some Germans living in these areas were placed there as part of the Nazi settlement policies (particularly in Eastern Poland), and had replaced those who were removed or killed by the Nazis during the occupation. However, many Germans had lived in Eastern Europe for centuries and the ones settled during the war were in fact a minority which mainly consisted of those who were forced to leave the territories occupied by the Red Army in the course of the execution of the Hitler-Stalin-Treaty.

During the war, Germans succeeded in expelling about a million of Poles from the Reich territory. The Poles were given 10 minutes notice and each adult was allowed to collect up to 30kg of belongings in that time, before they were thrown out of their houses and transported east. On top of that about 3 million Poles were deported for forced labour in German factories and 5 million in German concentration camps. Further 6 million Polish citizens were killed during the war. All these actions resulted in significant changes in demographics at the end of the war.

[edit] The results

During the period of 1944/1945 - 1950, more than 14 million Germans were forced to flee or were expelled as a result of actions of the Red Army, civilian militia and/or organised efforts of governments of the reconstituted states of Eastern Europe.

The areas, from which the Germans escaped, or which were ethnically cleansed, were subsequently re-populated by nationals of the states to which they now belonged, many of whom were expellees themselves from lands further east.

[edit] Controversy over responsibility for the expulsions

There is considerable, contentious debate over how much blame for the deaths and suffering of the expelled Germans should be placed on the shoulders of the nations who expelled the Germans. Whether the actual death toll be 1 million or 2 million, it is clear that the blame must be shared among the Allied Powers who made the decision to authorize the population transfers, the Soviet Union which had effective control over the countries involved, the national governments that put the expulsions into motion, and also the paramilitary organizations and local civilians who took advantage of the opportunity to rob, rape, torture and murder the expellees as they transited out of their homelands. However, different perspectives place the primary blame upon different parties.

A natural assumption would put the blame on the people and governments of the countries that sanctioned the expulsions. However, a countervailing perspective argues that there were only two forces orchestrating the new order after the Second World War: the United States and the Soviet Union. Thus, this perspective argues that the responsibility for all the expulsions (Germans, Poles, Ukrainians etc) rests on those two allies and that the countries that the policies were implemented in had no say in this. Other perspectives suggest that, while these two countries may have planned, sanctioned and even facilitated the expulsions, some responsibility must be charged to the national and local authorities in the countries where the expulsions took place.

In particular, much blame is placed on the Soviet regime at the time (in particular Josef Stalin) for its program of ethnic cleansing of the German people from the Soviet Union and Soviet-occupied Eastern Europe. Many of the deaths were caused by death marches ordered by Soviet officials, banditry, famine, widespread disease and overall poor living conditions that prevailed in that part of postwar Europe.

Yet another perspective argues that the expulsions were not driven primarily by ethnic hatred against the ethnic Germans. Instead, it is argued that blame must be shared by the Nazi occupation and the ethnic Germans who supported the occupying forces Nazi regime because of the harsh and oppressive way that they treated the non-Germans in the occupied nations. This perspective argues that the expulsions were motivated by an animus engendered by the war crimes, atrocities and oppressive rule of the German occupation. [8]

[edit] Legacy of the expulsions

During the Cold War era, there was little public knowledge of the expulsions and thus scant discussion over the morality of the policy. Perhaps the primary reason for this is that Cold War geopolitics discouraged criticism of post-war Allied policies by the West Germans and of post-war Soviet policies by the East Germans. There was some discussion of the expulsions in the first decade and a half after World War II but serious review and analysis of the events was not undertaken until the 1990s. The fall of the Soviet Union, the spirit of glasnost and the unification of Germany opened the door to a renewed examination of these events.

[edit] Re-examination of the expulsions in the 1990s

In the early 1990s, the Cold War ended and the occupying powers withdrew from Germany. The issue of the treatment of Germans after World War II began to be re-examined, having previously been overshadowed by Nazi Germany's war crimes. The primary motivation for this change was the collapse of the Soviet Union, which allowed for issues previously marginalised, such as the crimes committed by the Soviet Army during the World War II, to be raised.

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Rocznik Polsko-Niemiecki Tom I "Mniejszość niemiecka w Polsce w polityce wewnętrznej w Polsce i w RFN oraz w stosunkach między obydwu państwami" Piotr Madajczyk Warszawa 1992
  2. ^ a b The Expulsion of 'German' Communities from Eastern Europe at the end of the Second World War, Steffen Prauser and Arfon Rees, European University Institute, Florence. HEC No. 2004/1. pg. 18.
  3. ^ Z. Beneš, et. al, p. 221
  4. ^ Z. Beneš, et. al, p. 223
  5. ^ Jankowiak, p. 35
  6. ^ "Polacy - wysiedleni, wypędzeni i wyrugowani przez III Rzeszę", Maria Wardzyńska, Warsaw 2004". Created on order of Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, the organization called Selbstschutz cooperated in executions during „Intelligenzaktion”, made alongside operational groups of security policy, by identifying local Poles and interning them
  7. ^ Jankowiak, p. 135
  8. ^ Zybura, p. 202

[edit] References

[edit] Further reading

The following publications might shed a different light on what is presented in the article above:

  • "Documents on the Expulsion of the Germans from Eastern & Central Europe" compiled by an editorial board headed by Professor Theodor Schieder, of the University of Cologne. Published by the Federal Ministry for Expellees, Refugees, & War Victims, Bonn (Dates may indicate the year of the English translations rather than the original publication):
    • vol.1: "The Expulsion of the German Population from the Territories East of the Oder-Neisse Line" (1959).
    • vol.2/3:"The Expulsion of the German Population from Hungary and Rumania" (1961).
    • vol. 4: "The Expulsion of the German Population from Czechoslovakia" (1960)
  • "Speaking Frankly" by James F.Byrnes, New York & London, 1947.
  • "Nemesis at Potsdam - The Anglo-Americans & the Expulsion of the Germans", by Dr. Alfred M. de Zayas, Routledge, London, 1st published 1977, revised edition 1979. 3 editions University of Nebraska Press, 2 editions Picton Press, Rockport Maine, newest edition 2003.
  • Germany and Eastern Europe since 1945" - Keesing's Research Report, New York, 1973.
  • Four-Power Control in Germany and Austria 1945-1946" by Michael Balfour and John Mair for the Royal Institute of International Affairs, Oxford University Press, 1956.
  • "In Darkest Germany" by Victor Gollancz, London, 1947.
  • "Thine Enemy" by Sir Philip Gibbs, London, 1946.
  • "The Home Front:Germany" by Charles Whiting, Time-Life Books, Virginia, 1982.ISBN 0-8094-3419-9.
  • "The Aftermath:Europe" by Douglas Botting, Time-Life Books, Virginia, 1983.ISBN 0-8094-3411-3
  • "Hour of the Women" by Count Christian von Krockow, Stuttgart,1988, New York, 1991, London, 1992. ISBN 0-571-14320-2,
  • "Crimes and Mercies - The Fate of German Civilians under Allied Occupation 1944 - 1950" by James Bacque, London, 1997. ISBN 0-316-64070-0.
  • "Memoirs - 1945:Year of Decisions" by Harry S.Truman, 1st pub.,by Time Inc.,1955, reprint New York 1995. ISBN 0-8317-1578-2.
  • "Memoirs - 1946-52:Years of Trial & Hope" by Harry S.Truman, 1st pub.,by Time Inc.,1955, reprint New York 1996. ISBN 0-8317-7319-7.
  • A Terrible Revenge: The Ethnic Cleansing of the East European Germans, 1944-1950 - Alfred-Maurice de Zayas - 1994 - ISBN 0-312-12159-8. New Revised edition with Palgrave/Macmillan, New York 2006, ISBN 13: 978-1-4039-7308-5, ISBN-10: 1-4039-7308-3
  • "Armia Czerwona na Pomorzu Gdańskim 1945-1947" by Grzegorz Baziur, IPN, Warszawa 2003, ISBN 83-89078-19-8
  • "Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth Century Europe" Edited by Steven Bela Vardy and T. Hunt Tooley, ISBN 0-88033-995-0 (This volume is the result of the conference on Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth Century Europe held at Duquesne University in November 2000.)

[edit] External links

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