Islam in China
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Islam in China |
| History of Islam in China |
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History |
| Architecture |
| Major figures |
| People Groups |
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Hui • Salar • Uygur |
| Islamic Cities/Regions |
| Culture |
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Islamic Association of China |
Islam has a rich heritage in China. The religion has had a presence in the country since the Tang Dynasty when a companion of Muhammad, Sa`ad ibn Abi Waqqas, was sent as an official envoy to Emperor Gaozong in 650 CE. The Emperor drew parallels between the religion and the teachings of Confucius and ordered the establishment of the first mosque in China.[1]
A notable feature of the Muslim communities in China is the presence of female imams.[2] A form of Islamic calligraphy, the Sini, is well established in China. Hajji Noor Deen Mi Guangjiang is a famous modern calligrapher in this tradition.
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[edit] Number of Muslims in China
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The neutrality of this section is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. |
China is home to a large population of adherents of Islam. According to the CIA World Factbook, about 1%-2% of the total population in China are Muslims,[3] while the US Department of State's International Religious Freedom Report shows that Muslims constitute about 1.5% (or a population of 19,594,707) of the Chinese population.[4] The various censuses asserted that there may be up to 20 million Muslims in China.[5]
The BBC's Religion and Ethics webpage gives a range of 20 million to 100 million Muslims in China;[6] the figure of 100 million is based on a 1938 statistical yearbook placing the number of Muslims at 50 million, as well as census data from the 1940s, which showed roughly 48 million Muslims.[7] Demographers at the University of Michigan contend in contrast that the only way the Muslim population of China could be substantially higher than the officially counted 20.3 million in the 2000 census is if there were a very large hidden or uncounted number of Muslims in China; but a large undercount of Muslims has not been documented and remains speculative.[8][9]
According to the 2000 census, the largest of the ten traditionally Muslim ethnic groups in China are the Hui (9.8 million in year 2000 census, or 48% of the officially tabulated number of Muslims). The other nine, in descending order of size, are Uyghurs (8.4 million, 41%), Kazakhs (1.25 million , 6.1%), Dongxiang (514 thousand, 2.5%), Kirghiz (161 thousand), Salar (105 thousand), Tajiks (41 thousand), Bonan (17 thousand), Uzbek (12 thousand), and Tatar (5 thousand). However, individual members of traditionally Muslim ethnic groups may profess other religions or none at all, while Muslim believers may also be found among traditionally non-Muslim groups (one example being the Kache, who are ethnically Tibetan). Muslims live predominantly in the areas that border Central Asia, Tibet and Mongolia, i.e Xinjiang, Ningxia, Gansu and Qinghai, which is know as the Quran Belt. [10]
[edit] History
During the Tang Dynasty, China was highly tolerant of new religions and Chinese contact with foreign envoys flourished. Islam was introduced to China via the silk road by Arabs. Although some believe that Islam may have arrived in China during the Sui Dynasty, the first official record of Islam's arrival in China occurred during the Tang Dynasty. Muslims came to dominate foreign trade during the Song Dynasty, and, as immigration slowed during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, became increasingly integrated into Chinese society.
However, Muslims suffered a decline of their status during the Qing Dynasty. Numerous Hui rebellions, such as the Panthay Rebellion,Muslim Rebellion, sprung up during the Qing Dynasty in reaction to repressionist policies.
[edit] Chinese Muslims and the Hajj
Some Chinese Muslims may have made the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca on the Arabian peninsula between the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries, yet there is no written record of this prior to 1861.
Briefly during the Cultural Revolution, Chinese Muslims were not allowed to attend the Hajj,and only did so through Pakistan, but this policy was reversed in 1979. Chinese Muslims now attend the Hajj in large numbers, typically in organized groups.
A record 9,600 Chinese Muslim pilgrims from all over the country attended the Hajj in Mecca, Saudi Arabia in 2006[11]
[edit] Representative bodies
[edit] Islamic Association of China
The Islamic Association of China claims to represent Chinese Muslims nationwide. At its inaugural meeting on May 11, 1953 in Beijing, representatives from 10 nationalities of the People's Republic of China were in attendance.
[edit] China Islamic Association
In April 2001, the government set up the China Islamic Association, which was described as aiming to "help the spread of the Qur'an in China and oppose religious extremism". The association is to be run by 16 Islamic religious leaders who are charged with making "a correct and authoritative interpretation" of Islamic creed and canon.
It will compile and spread inspirational speeches and help imams improve themselves, and vet sermons made by clerics around the country. This latter function is probably the key job as far as the central government is concerned. It is worried that some clerics are using their sermons to spread sedition.
Some examples of the religious concessions granted to Muslims are:
- In areas where Muslims are a majority, the breeding of pigs is not allowed, in deference to Muslim sensitivities
- Muslim communities are allowed separate cemeteries
- Muslim couples may have their marriage consecrated by an Imam
- Muslim workers are permitted holidays during major religious festivals
- Chinese Muslims are also allowed to make the Hajj to Mecca, and more than 45,000 Muslims have done so in recent years.[12]
[edit] Islamic education in China
Over the last twenty years a wide range of Islamic educational opportunities have been developed to meet the needs of China’s Muslim population. In addition to mosque schools, government Islamic colleges, and independent Islamic colleges, a growing number of students have gone overseas to continue their studies at international Islamic universities in Egypt, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Iran, and Malaysia.[13]
[edit] Culture and heritage
The Mongol conquest of the greater part of Eurasia in the 13th century brought the extensive cultural traditions of China and Persia into a single empire, albeit one of separate khanates, for the first time in history. The intimate interaction that resulted is evident in the legacy of both traditions. In China, Islam influenced technology, sciences, philosophy and the arts. In terms of material culture, one finds decorative motives from central Asian Islamic architecture and calligraphy, the marked halal impact on northern Chinese cuisine and the varied influences of Islamic medical science on Chinese medicine.[citation needed]
Taking the Mongol Eurasian empire as a point of departure, the ethnogenesis of the Hui, or Sinophone Muslims, can also be charted through the emergence of distinctly Chinese Muslim traditions in architecture, food, epigraphy and Islamic written culture. This multifaceted cultural heritage continues to the present day.[14]
[edit] Islamic Architecture
The first Chinese mosque was established in the 7th century during the Tang Dynasty in Xi'an. The Great Mosque of Xi'an, whose current buildings date from the Ming Dynasty, does not replicate many of the features often associated with traditional mosques. Instead, it follows traditional Chinese architecture. Mosques in western China incorporate more of the elements seen in mosques in other parts of the world. Western Chinese mosques were more likely to incorporate minarets and domes while eastern Chinese mosques were more likely to look like pagodas.[15]
An important feature in Chinese architecture is its emphasis on symmetry, which connotes a sense of grandeur; this applies to everything from palaces to mosques. One notable exception is in the design of gardens, which tends to be as asymmetrical as possible. Like Chinese scroll paintings, the principle underlying the garden's composition is to create enduring flow; to let the patron wander and enjoy the garden without prescription, as in nature herself.
Chinese buildings may be built with either red or grey bricks, but wooden structures are the most common; these are more capable of withstanding earthquakes, but are vulnerable to fire. The roof of a typical Chinese building is curved; there are strict classifications of gable types, comparable with the classical orders of European columns.
As in all regions the Chinese Islamic architecture reflects the local architecture in its style. China is renowned for its beautiful mosques, which resemble temples. However in western China the mosques resemble those of the middle east, with tall, slender minarets, curvy arches and dome shaped roofs. In northwest China where the Chinese Hui have built their mosques, there is a combination of east and west. The mosques have flared Chinese-style roofs set in walled courtyards entered through archways with miniature domes and minarets (see Beytullah Mosque). [16] The first mosque was the Great Mosque of Xian, or the Xian Mosque, which was created in the Tang Dynasty in the 7th century.
[edit] Halal food in China
Due to the large Muslim population in western China, many Chinese restaurants cater to Muslims or cater to the general public but are run by Muslims. In most major cities in China, there are small Islamic restaurants or food stalls typically run by migrants from Western China (e.g., Uyghurs), which offer inexpensive noodle soup. Lamb and mutton dishes are more commonly available than in other Chinese restaurants, due to the greater prevalence of these meats in the cuisine of western Chinese regions. [17]
[edit] Calligraphy
Sini is a Chinese Islamic calligraphic form for the Arabic script. It can refer to any type of Chinese Islamic calligraphy, but is commonly used to refer to one with thick and tapered effects, much like Chinese calligraphy. It is used extensively in mosques in eastern China, and to a lesser extent in Gansu, Ningxia, and Shaanxi. A famous Sini calligrapher is Hajji Noor Deen Mi Guangjiang.
[edit] Martial arts
Muslim development and participation at the highest level of Chinese wushu has a long history. Many of its roots lie in the Qing Dynasty persecution of Muslims. The Hui started and adapted many of the styles of wushu such as bajiquan, piguazhang, and liuhequan. There were specific areas that were known to be centers of Muslim wushu, such as Cang County in Hebei Province. These traditional Hui martial arts were very distinct from the Turkic styles practiced in Xinjiang.[18]
[edit] Chinese terminology for Islamic institutions
Qīngzhēn (清真) is the Chinese term for certain Islamic institutions. Its literal meaning is "pure truth."
In Chinese, halal is called qīngzhēn cài (清真菜) or "pure truth food." A mosque is called qīngzhēn sì (清真寺) or "pure truth temple."
[edit] Famous Chinese Muslims
[edit] Explorers
[edit] Military
- Founding generals of the Ming dynasty: Chang Yuchun, Hu Dahai,Lan Yu, Mu Ying
- The leaders of the Panthay Rebellion: Du Wenxiu, Ma Hualong
- The Ma clique of warlords during the Republic of China era: Ma Bufang, Ma Chung-ying, Ma Fuxiang, Ma Hongkui, Ma Hongbin, Ma Lin, Ma Qi, Ma Hun-shan
- Bai Chongxi, general in the Republic of China army
[edit] Scholars
- Bai Shouyi, historian
- Tohti Tunyaz, historian
- Yusuf Ma Dexin, first translator of the Qur'an into Chinese
- Muhammad Ma Jian, author of the most popular Chinese translation of the Qur'an
- Liu Zhi, Qing Dynasty author
- Wang Daiyu, Master Supervisor of the Imperial Observatory during the Ming Dynasty
[edit] In politics
- Hui Liangyu, vice premier in charge of agriculture in the People's Republic of China
- Huseyincan Celil, Uyghur imam imprisoned in China
- Xabib Yunic, Education Minister of the Second East Turkistan Republic
- Muhammad Amin Bughra, Vice-Chief of the Second East Turkistan Republic
[edit] Other
- Noor Deen Mi Guangjiang, calligrapher
- Ma Xianda, martial artist
- Ma Menta, organiser of Russia's Wushu Tongbei Federation
- Shi Jin Qing
[edit] See also
- Islam by country
- Religion in China
- Demographics of China
- Islamic Association of China
- Tibetan Muslims
- Christianity in China
[edit] Notes
- ^ http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/xian/greatmosqueindex.htm www.orientalarchitecture.com]
- ^ news.bbc.co.uk
- ^ https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ch.html#People
- ^ http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm
- ^ Counting up the number of people of traditionally Muslim nationalities who were enumerated in the 1990 census gives a total of 17.6 million, 96% of whom belong to just three nationalities: Hui 8.6 million, Uyghurs 7.2 million, and Kazakhs 1.1 million. Other nationalities that are traditionally Muslim include Kyrghyz, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Tatars, Salar, Bonan, and Dongxiang. See Dru C. Gladney, "Islam in China: Accommodation or Separatism?", Paper presented at Symposium on Islam in Southeast Asia and China, Hong Kong, 2002. Available at http://www.islamsymposium.cityu.edu.hk. The 2000 census reported a total of 20.3 million members of Muslim nationalities, of which again 96% belonged to just three groups: Hui 9.8 million, Uyghurs 8.4 million, and Kazakhs 1.25 million.
- ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_4.shtml
- ^ There are in China 48,104,241 Mohammedan followers and 42,371 mosques, largely in Sinkiang, Chinghai, Manchuria, Kansu, Yunnan, Shensi, Hopei, and Honan. "Ferm, Vergilius (ed.). An Encyclopedia of Religion; Westport, CT: Greenwood Press (1976), pg. 145. [1st pub. in 1945 by Philosophical Library. 1976 reprint is unrevised.]
- ^ Based on a post-enumeration survey and related studies, the 2000 census undercounted China's population by 1.81%. This would amount to some 23 million persons. It is unlikely that any such undercount would consist primarily of members of Muslim nationalities. Instead, the undercount is most often attributed to the floating population of rural to urban migrants (who are not officially registered) and to rural populations in central China – not to minority populations or areas. For discussion of the undercount, see Barbara A. Anderson, "Undercount in China's 2000 Census in Comparative Perspective," PSC Research Report Report No. 04-565 (September 2004), Population Studies Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA. Available at: http://www.psc.isr.umich.edu/pubs/abs.html?ID=1872; and Guangyu Zhang, "Very Low Fertility in China in the 1990s: Reality or An Illusion Arising from Birth Underreporting?," Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Population Association of America, April 2004.
- ^ [1]
- ^ A. Doak Barnett, China on the Eve of the Communist Takeover, p182
- ^ Ministry of Hajj official site http://www.hajinformation.com/main/y1155.htm
- ^ bbc religion and ethics ISLAM China Islamic Association[2]
- ^ Harvard Asia Quarterly
- ^ CHINA HERITAGE NEWSLETTER China Heritage Project, The Australian National University ISBN 1833-8461 No. 5, March 2006
- ^ Cowen, Jill S.. "Muslims in China: The Mosque", Saudi Aramco World, July/August 1985, pp. 30-35. Retrieved on April 8, 2006.
- ^ Saudi Aramco World, July/August 1985 , page 3035
- ^ http://chinamuslim.per.sg/halal/halal.htm
- ^ NTU Bajiquan Kungfu Club http://club.ntu.edu.tw/~ntubachi/Bajiquan/en_about.htm
[edit] References
- Reischauer, Edwin O. and Fairbank, John K., East Asia: The Great Tradition
- http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/HI06Ad01.html
- www.muslimwikipedia Islam in China
- http://www.asiaquarterly.com/content/view/166/43
[edit] External links
- Chinese Muslims forge isolated path
- Islam in China
- Photos of "Islam in China" by Photojournalist Sean Gallagher
- www.muslimwikipedia Islam in China
- The New York times
- Islam House Chinese Site
- islamawareness.net
- www.islamcn.net
- Islamic Chinese Art (Dru C. Gladney's photo album on Flickr.com)
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