Indo-European sound laws

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Map of the main isoglosses between the branches of Indo-European
Map of the main isoglosses between the branches of Indo-European

As the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) broke up, its sound system diverged as well, according to various sound laws in the daughter languages.

Notable among these are Grimm's law in Proto-Germanic, loss of prevocalic *p- in Proto-Celtic, loss of prevocalic *s- in Proto-Greek, Brugmann's law in Proto-Indo-Iranian. Grassmann's law and Bartholomae's law may or may not have been still common Indo-European.

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Note - these draught tables need to be completed, verified, and the allophones explained.

Contents

[edit] Consonants

Proto-Indo-European consonants and their reflexes in the Indo-European daughter languages
Trad. PIE Glot. PIE Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lithuanian Armenian Albanian Tocharian Hittite Greek Latin Old Irish Proto-Germ. English
*p *p⁽ʰ⁾ p [p] p [p] p [p] p [p] h [h]; w [w] 1 p [p] p [p] p [p] p [p] p [p] Ø; ch [x] 2 *f; *β 3; *p 4 f [f]; v, f [v, f] 8; p [p] 4
*t *t⁽ʰ⁾ t [t] t [t] t [t] t [t] tʽ [tʰ] t [t] t [t]; c [c] 5 t; z 5 t [t] t [t] t [t]; th [θ] 8 *θ; *ð 3; *t 4 th [θ]; d [d] 3; t [t] 4
*k̂ *k̂⁽ʰ⁾ ś [ɕ] s [s] s [s] š [ʃ] s [s] th [θ]; k [k] 9 k; ś [ɕ] 9 k [k] k [k] k [k] c [k]; ch [x] 8 *x; *ɣ 3; k 4 h [h]; Ø 8; y [j] 3; k [k] 4
*k *k⁽ʰ⁾ k [k]; c [c] 5 k [k]; c [ʧ] 5 k [k]; č [ʧ] 5; c [ʦ] 10 k [k] kʻ [kʰ] k [k]
*kʷ *kʷ⁽ʰ⁾ k [k]; s [s] 5; q [c] 10 ku [kʷ] p; t 5; k 6 qu [kʷ]; c [k] 7 c [k]; ch [x] 8 *xʷ; *ɣʷ, *w 3; kʷ 4 wh [w̥ > w]; w [-]3; qu [kʰw] 4
*b *p’ b [b] b [b] b [b] b [b] p [p] b [b] p [p] p [p] b [b] b [b] b [b] *p p [pʰ]
*d *t’ d [d] d [d] d [d] d [d] t [t] d [d]; dh [ð] 8 ʦ [ʦ]; ś [ɕ] 5 t [t] d [d] d [d] d [d]; dh [ð] 8 *t t [tʰ]
*ĝ *k̂’ j [ɟ] z [z] z [z] ž [ʒ] c [ʦ] dh [ð]; g 9 k [k]; ś [ɕ] 9 k [k] g [g] g [g] g [g]; gh [ɣ] 8 *k c/k [k]; ch [ʧ] 10
*g *k’ g [g]; j [ɟ] 5 g [g]; j [ʤ] 5 g [g]; ž [ʒ] 5; dz [ʣ] 10 g [g] k [k] g
*gʷ *kʷ’ g [g]; z [z] 5; gj [ɟ] 10 ku [kʷ] b [b]; d [d] 5; g [g] 6 u [w]; gu [gʷ] 15 b [b]; m, bh [w] 8 *kʷ qu [kʰʷ]
*bʰ *b⁽ʰ⁾ / *pʰ bh [bʱ] b [b] b [b] b [b] b [b]; w [w] 8 b [b] p [p] p [p] ph [pʰ] f [f]; b 8 b [b]; m, bh [m, w]8 *β b [b]; v, f [v, f] 8
*dʰ *d⁽ʰ⁾ / *tʰ dh [dʱ] d [d] d [d] d [d] d [d] d [d] t [t]; c [c] 5 t [t] th [tʰ] f [f]; d 8; b [b] 14 d [d]; dh [ð] 8 *ð d [d]
*ĝʰ *ĝ⁽ʰ⁾ / *k̂ʰ h [ɦ] z [z] z [z] ž [ʒ] j [ʣ]; z [z] 8 dh [ð]; d [d] 9 k [k]; ś [ɕ] 5 k [k] ch [kʰ] h [h]; h [h] / g [g] 9 g [g]; gh [ɣ] 5 *ɣ g [g]; y, w [j, -] 8
*gʰ *g⁽ʰ⁾ / *kʰ gh [gʱ]; h [ɦ] 5 g [g]; ǰ [ʤ] 5 g [g]; ž [ʒ] 5; dz [ʣ]] 10 g [g] g [g]; ǰ [ʤ] 5 g [g]
*gʷʰ *gʷ⁽ʰ⁾ / *kʷʰ g [g]; z [z] 5; gj [ɟ] 10 ku [kʷ] ph [pʰ]; th [tʰ] 5; ch [kʰ] 6 f [f]; g [g] / u [w] 8; gu [gʷ] 15 g [g] *ɣʷ g [g] / b [b]; w [-] 8
*s *s s [s]; ṣ [ʂ] 11 h [h, x]; s [s] 2; š [ʃ] 11 s [s]; x [x] 11 s [s]; š [ʃ] 11 h [h]; s [s] 2; [-] 8 sh [ʃ]; gj [ɟ] 12 s [s]; ṣ [ʂ] š [s] h [h]; s [s] 2; [-] 8 s [s]; r [r] 8 s [s] *s; *z 3 s [s]; s [z, s] 8; r [ɹʷ, ə] 3
*m *m m [m] m [m] m [m]; ˛ [˜] 13 m [m]; n [n] 13 m [m]; n [n] 13 m [m]; Ø 13 m [m]; Ø 13 m [m]; n [n] 13 m [m]; n [n] 13 m [m] b [b]; m, bh [m, w] 8; n [n] 13 *m; Ø 13 m [m]
*n *n n [n] n [n] n [n] n [n] n [n] n [n] n [n]; ñ [ɲ] n [n] n [n] n [n] n [n] *n n [n]
*l *l r [r] (dial. l [l]) r [r] l [l] l [l] l [l], ɫ [ɫ > ɣ] l [l]; ll [ɫ] 8 l [l] l [l] l [l] l [l] l [l] *l l [l, ɫ]
*r *r r [r] r [r] r [r] r [r] r [ɹ] r [ɾ] r [r] r [r] r [r] r [r] r [r] *r r [ɹʷ, ə]
*i̯ *i̯ y [j] y [j] j [j] j [j] Ø gj [ɟ]; Ø y [j] y [j] z [?zd/ʣ > z] / h [h]; Ø 8 i [j]; Ø 8 Ø *j y [j]
*u̯ *u̯ v [ʋ] v [w] v [v] v [ʋ] g [g] / w [w] v [v] w [w] w [w] w > h / Ø [w > h / -] u [w > v] f [f]; Ø / w [w] 8 *w w [w]
Trad. PIE Glot. PIE Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lithuanian Armenian Albanian Tocharian Hittite Greek Latin Old Irish Proto-Germ. English
Notes:
  • 1 After vowels.
  • 2 Before a plosive (p, t, k).
  • 3 Before an unstressed vowel (Verner’s Law).
  • 4 After a (Proto-Germanic) fricative (s, f).
  • 5 Before a (PIE) front vowel (i, e).
  • 6 Before or after a (PIE) u.
  • 7 Before or after a (PIE) o, u.
  • 8 Between vowels.
  • 9 Before a resonant.
  • 10 Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
  • 11 After r, u, k, i (RUKI).
  • 12 Before a stressed vowel.
  • 13 At the end of a word.
  • 14 After u, r or before r, l.
  • 15 After n.

[edit] Vowels and syllabic consonants

Proto-Indo-European vowels and syllabic consonants, and their reflexes in the Indo-European daughter languages
Old reconstr. New reconstr. Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lithuanian Armenian Albanian Tocharian Hittite Greek Latin Proto-Celtic Gothic
*e *e a a e e e je, ie, e, i; ja 12 ä e, i e e e i; ai [ɛ]2
*h₁e
*a (*a 3) o a a ha, a ā ha, a a a a a
*h₂e
*o *h₃e o, a a a, e a o o o
*o a, ā 4 a, ā 4
*ə *h₁ i i, Ø Ø Ø a, Ø ā a e a a a, Ø
*h₂ h a
*h₃ o
*- *h₁ Ø Ø e (a?) Ø Ø a e (o) Ø Ø Ø
*h₂ a ha a
*h₃ a a, ha o
*ē *ē ā ā ě ė i o, ua a/e?; ā? 8 e, i ē ē ī ē
*eh₁
*ā (*ā 3) a o a a/o? a, ah ā > ē ā ā ā
*eh₂
*ō *ō uo u e a/ā?; ū? 8 a ō ō ā; ū 8
*eh₃
*i *i i i ь i i i; e 10 ä i i i i i
*ī *ih₁ ī ī i y [i:] i i ī ī ī ei [i:]
*ih₂ i or (j)a? 7 yā ī or (j)ā? 7
*ih₃ ī or (j)ō? 7
*ei *ei ē ōi, aē 4 ei, ie 5 i e ei ī īa, ē 6
*h₁ei
*oi *oi ě ai, ie5 e e, ai oi ū oe ai
*h₃ei
*ai (*ai 3) ay ai ae ae
*h₂ei
*ēi *ēi āi; ā 8 āi; ā(i) 8 i āi > ēi ī? ai
*ōi *ōi (*oei) y; u 8 ai; ui 8 ai āi > ēi ō u 8
*āi *eh₂ei ě āi > ēi ae ai
*u *u u u ъ u u u; y 11 ä u u u u; o 1 u; au [ɔ] 2
*ū *uh₁ ū ū y ū y; i 8 u ū ū ū ū
*uh₂ u or (w)a? 7 wā ū or (w)ā? 7
*uh₃ ū or (w)ō? 7
*eu *eu ō ə̄u, ao 4 ju iau oy e u u eu ū ūa; ō 9 iu
*h₁eu
*ou *ou u au a o, au ou au
*h₃eu
*au (*au 3) aw au au
*h₂eu
*ēu *ēu āu āu u iau ū? au
*ōu *ōu ō
*m̥ *m̥ a a ę im̃; um̃ 14 am a äm am a em em, am um
*m̥̅ *mH ā ā ìm; ùm 14 ama mā mē, mā, mō mā mā
*m̥m am am ьm/ъm im; um 14 am am em am
*n̥ *n̥ a a ę iñ; uñ 14 an a än an a en en, an un
*n̥̄ *nH ā ā ìn; ùn 14 ana nā nē, nā, nō nā nā
*n̥n an an ьn/ъn iñ; uñ 14 an an en an
*l̥ *l̥ ṛ ərə lь/lъ il̃; ul̃ 14 al äl al la ol li ul
*l̥̄ *lH īr; ūr 13 arə ìl; ùl 14 ala al lā lē, lā, lō lā lā
*l̥l ir; ur 13 ar ьl/ъl il; ul 14 al, la al el al
*r̥ *r̥ ṛ ərə rь/rъ ir̃; ur̃ 14 ar ri är ar ra or ri aur
*r̥̄ *rH īr; ūr 13 arə ìr; ùr 14 ara ra rā rē, rā, rō rā rā
*r̥r ir; ur 13 ar ьr/ъr ir; ur 14 ar ar ar ar
Old reconstr. New reconstr. Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lithuanian Armenian Albanian Tocharian Hittite Greek Latin Old Irish Gothic
Notes
  • 1 Before wa.
  • 2 Before r, h.
  • 3 The existence of PIE non-allophonic a is disputed.
  • 4 In open syllables (Brugmann's law).
  • 5 Under stress.
  • 6 Before palatal consonants.
  • 7 The so-called breaking is disputed (typical examples are *proti-h₃kʷo- > Ved. prátīkam ~ Gk. πρόσωπον; *gʷih₃u̯o- > Ved. jīvá- ~ Arm. keank‘, Gk. ζωός; *duh₂ro- > Ved. dūrá- ~ Arm. erkar, Gk. δηρός)
  • 8 In a final syllable.
  • 9 Before velars and unstressed
  • 10 Before ā in the following syllable.
  • 11 Before i in the following syllable.
  • 12 In a closed syllable.
  • 13 In the neighbourhood of labials.
  • 14 In the neighbourhood of labiovelars.

[edit] Sound laws within PIE

A few sound-laws can be reconstructed that may have been effective prior to the final breakup of PIE by internal reconstruction.

[edit] See also

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