Hypereutectic piston
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“Hypereutectic” means “Over” eutectic. The word eutectic refers to a condition in chemistry when two elements can be alloyed together on a molecular level, but only up to a specific percentage, at which point any additional secondary element will retain a distinct separate form.
Although internal combustion engine pistons commonly contain trace amounts (less than 2% each) of Copper, Manganese, and Nickel, the major element in automotive pistons is Aluminum due to its light weight, low cost, and acceptable strength. The alloying element of concern in automotive pistons is Silicon. Gold and Silver have no eutectic point, which means they can be alloyed together in any ratio. However, when Silicon is added to Aluminum they will only blend together evenly on a molecular level up to approximately a 12% Silicon content. For the purposes of this discussion, Silicon in this context can be thought of as “powdered sand”, and any Silicon that is added to aluminum at above a 12% content will retain a distinct granular form instead of melting. At a blend of 25% Silicon, there is a significant reduction of strength in the piston alloy, so stock hypereutectic pistons commonly use a level of Silicon between 16% and 19%. Special molds, casting, and cooling techniques are required to obtain uniformly dispersed silicon particles throughout the piston material.
[edit] The reason for their development
Most automotive engines use aluminum pistons that cycle in a steel cylinder. The average temperature of a piston crown in a gasoline engine during normal operation is typically about 600 degrees Fahrenheit, and the coolant that runs through the engine block is usually regulated at approximately 190 degrees F. Aluminum expands more than steel at this temperature range, so for the piston to fit the cylinder properly when at a normal operating temperature, the piston must have a loose fit when cold.
In the 1970’s, increasing concern over exhaust pollution caused the U.S. government to form the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which began passing legislation that forced auto manufacturers to make changes that allowed their engines to run cleaner. By the late 1980’s, auto exhaust pollution had been noticeably improved, but increasingly stringent regulations forced car manufacturers to adopt the use of electronically controlled fuel injection and hypereutectic pistons. It was discovered that when an engine is cold, a small amount of excess fuel during start-up became trapped between the piston rings. This admittedly small quantity of excess fuel affected the amount of hydrocarbons in the exhaust when the piston expanded as it warmed, and then expelled the excess fuel.
By adding Silicon to the pistons alloy, the amount the piston expanded could be dramatically reduced, which allowed engineers to specify a much tighter cold-fit. Silicon itself expands less than Aluminum, and it also acts as an insulator to prevent the Aluminum from absorbing as much of the operational heat as it otherwise would. Another beneficial effect of adding Silicon is that the piston becomes harder, and is less susceptible to scuffing, which can occur when a soft aluminum piston is cold-revved in a relatively dry cylinder on start-up.
The biggest drawback of piston Silicon is that the piston becomes more brittle as more Silicon is added, which allows the piston to develop cracks easier if the engine experiences pre-ignition or detonation.
[edit] Performance replacement alloys
When an auto enthusiast wants to increase the power of their engine, they often add some type of forced induction. By compressing more air and fuel into each intake cycle, the power of the engine can be dramatically increased. This also increases the heat and pressure in the cylinder.
The normal temperature of gasoline engine exhaust is approximately 1200 F. This is also approximately the melting point of most Aluminum alloys, and it is only the constant influx of ambient air that prevents the piston from deforming and failing due to excess temperatures. Forced induction increases the operating temperatures while “under boost”, and if the excess heat is added faster than engine can shed it, the elevated cylinder temperatures will cause the air and fuel mix to auto-ignite on the compression stroke before the spark event. This is one type of engine knocking that causes a sudden shock wave and pressure spike, which can result in an immediate and catastrophic failure of the piston and connecting rod.
The “4032” performance piston alloy has an approximate Silicon content of 11%. This means that it expands from heat less than a piston with no Silicon, but since its eutectic level of Silicon is fully alloyed on a molecular level, this alloy is less brittle and more flexible than a stock Hypereutectic “smog” piston. These pistons can survive mild detonation with less damage than stock pistons.
The “2618” performance piston alloy has less than 2% Silicon and could be described as Hypo (under) eutectic. This alloy is capable of experiencing the most detonation and abuse while suffering the least amount of damage. Pistons made of this alloy are also typically made thicker and heavier because of their most common applications. Because of the higher than normal temperatures these pistons experience in their usual application, and also the low-Silicon content allowing the maximum possible Aluminum heat-expansion, these pistons have their cylinders bored to a very loose cold-fit. This leads to a condition known as “piston slap” which is when the piston rocks in the cylinder, and it causes an audible tapping noise that continues until the engine has warmed to operational temperatures. These engines should not be revved when cold, or excessive scuffing can occur.
[edit] Forged versus Cast
When a piston is cast, the alloy is heated until it is a liquid, and then it is poured into a mold to create its basic shape. After the alloy cools and solidifies, it is removed from the mold, and then the rough casting is machined to its final shape. When a piston is desired that is stronger than what simple casting can provide, they can be forged. This is when the rough casting is placed in a die set while it is still hot, and a hydraulic press is used to place the rough slug under a tremendous amount of pressure. This removes any possible porosity and also pushes the alloy grains together tighter than what can be achieved by simple casting alone, resulting in a much stronger material.
Hypereutectic pistons can be forged, but typically are only cast. This is because cast pistons are considered strong enough for stock applications, and the extra expense is not justified.
Aftermarket performance pistons made from the most common 4032 and 2618 alloys that are often used to replace stock hypereutectic pistons are typically forged.
