History of women in the military

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The History of women in the military is one that extends over 4000 years into the past, and throughout a vast number of cultures and nations. Women have played many roles in the military, from ancient warrior women, to the women currently serving in the Iraq War.

However the role of women in the military, particularly in combat, has been a controversial one beginning in the medieval era. Despite various roles in the armies of past societies, it is only recently that women have begun to be given a more prominent role in contemporary armed forces. As increasing numbers of countries begin to expand the role of women in their militaries, the debate continues.

Contents 1 History 1.1 Ancient Era 1.2 Medieval Era (500-1500) 1.3 Early Modern Era (1500-1750) 1.4 18th century 1.5 19th century 1.6 20th century 1.6.1 1900-1914 1.6.2 First World War 1.6.3 1918-1939 1.6.4 Second World War 1.6.5 Post World War II 1.7 21st Century 2 Contemporary Debate on Women's Roles in the Military 2.1 The Arguments 2.2 Recent history of changes in women's roles by country 2.2.1 Australia 2.2.2 Britain 2.2.3 Canada 2.2.4 Denmark 2.2.5 Finland 2.2.6 France 2.2.7 Germany 2.2.8 Israel 2.2.9 New Zealand 2.2.10 Nepal 2.2.11 Norway 2.2.12 Russia 2.2.13 Thailand 2.2.14 United States 2.3 The particular debate over women on submarines 3 In popular culture portrayals 4 Notes 5 References 5.1 Printed material: 5.2 Websites:

[edit] History

[edit] Ancient Era

Main article: History of Women in Ancient Warfare

[edit] Medieval Era (500-1500)

Main article: History of Women in Medieval warfare

[edit] Early Modern Era (1500-1750)

Main article: History of Women in Early Modern Warfare

[edit] 18th century

Main article: Women in 18th century warfare

[edit] 19th century

Main article: Women in 19th century warfare

[edit] 20th century

[edit] 1900-1914

Main article: Women in warfare (1900-1914)

[edit] First World War

Main article: Women in the First World War

[edit] 1918-1939

Main article: Women in warfare (1918-1939)

[edit] Second World War

Main article: Female roles in the World Wars

[edit] Post World War II

Main article: Women in warfare (1945-1999)

[edit] 21st Century

Main article: Women in warfare (2000-present)

[edit] Contemporary Debate on Women's Roles in the Military

The role of women in combat has become a particularly contentious issue in contemporary militaries throughout the world. With the current exclusion of women from many combat roles seen as a form of sex discrimination, an ongoing debate continues to rage. Many on each side of the issue cite the physical and mental differences of the two sexes, the effect of the presence of the opposite sex on the battlefield, and the traditional view of soldiers as male as arguments both for and against women being employed as soldiers under combat situations.

Although women are recruited to serve in the military in most countries, only a few countries permit women to fill active combat roles. Countries that allow this include Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany and Norway.

[edit] The Arguments

Several points of argument have been put forward by those in favour of women serving in combat conditions as well as those against the idea. Many of these arguments are focused on the physical differences between men and women, but also on differing mentalities, and the effects upon one sex by the presence of the other on the battlefield. Since very few countries employ a fully integrated military, there are few references able to prove or disprove the arguments below.

Political Concerns

One argument made in favour of allowing women to occupy combat roles in the military is that it would allow the armed forces to recruit (and in some countries, easily conscript) from a new population. Indeed, in Norway women are fully expected to conform to a full nationwide mobilisation should that situation arise. The United States army, for example, could not afford to maintain its overseas forces if women were removed from their roles.

It has been argued that there would be negative public reactions to female casualties in wartime that greatly exceeded responses to male deaths. However, public reactions to the deaths of women soldiers in the Iraq war of the early 21st century were not disproportionate and seemed accepting of the risks faced by male and female soldiers alike.

Physical Concerns

One of the most obvious concerns regarding women in combat situations is the fact that, on average, female soldiers do not possess as great a physical strength and stamina as their male counterparts. The female skeletal system is also less dense, and more prone to breakages. There is also concern that, in aviation, the female body is not as adept at handling the increased gravitational forces experienced by combat pilots. Furthermore, health issues regarding women currently prevent the vast majority of submarine services from accepting women, as is explained in more depth below.^[1]

However, an article in the Army Times, July 29, 1996, states that some women (albeit a small minority) do possess the physical attributes suitable to become combat soldiers.^[2]

Psychological Concerns The disruption of a combat units esprit de corps is cited as another reason for women to be banned from front-line combat situations. Indeed, many soldiers have stated that they could not trust a woman to perform her duties in a place where trusting your fellow soldier would be exceedingly critical.^[3][4] There is a secondary concern that romantic relationships between men and women on the front lines could disrupt a unit's fighting capability and a fear that a high number of women would deliberately become pregnant in order to escape combat duties.^[5]

In the American armed forces, the 1994 rules forbidding female involvement in combat units battalion size or smaller are being bent. Colonel Cheri Provancha, stationed in Iraq, argues that: "This war has proven that we need to revisit the policy, because they are out there doing it.”.^[6] The fact that women already engage in combat in today’s armed forces counters the idea that women do not possess a sufficiently-aggressive mentality to kill or wound enemy soldiers.

A second argument against the inclusion of women in combat units is that placing women in combat where they are at risk of being captured and tortured (and possibly sexually assaulted) is unacceptable.

This point is countered, however, by the fact that this woman was not on the front-line, a fact that fuels the argument that women who are currently in non-combat roles are still exposed to the risk of capture and sexual abuse. Furthermore, it is argued that women who joined the military in combat roles would almost certainly be aware of the risks and accept them.

Sex Discrimination and Tradition

Many view the exclusion of women from military combat jobs as the last bastion of sex discrimination. Some believe that women are forbidden to serve in these roles only as a result of the traditionalist view of soldiering as a profession for men and that the equal opportunity laws should apply to the military. Many point out that there are many historical examples of women achieving much on the battlefield in combat roles.

Tactical Concerns

In On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society, Lt. Col. Dave Grossman briefly mentions that female soldiers in the Israel Defense Forces have been officially prohibited from serving in close combat military operations since 1948. The reason for removing female soldiers from the front lines is no reflection of the performance of female soldiers, but that of the enraged male infantryman after witnessing a woman wounded. The IDF saw a complete loss of control over soldiers who apparently experienced an uncontrollable, protective, instinctual aggression which could have resulted in a massacre.

Grossman also notes that Islamic militants rarely, if ever, surrender to female soldiers. In modern warfare where intelligence are perhaps more important than enemy casualties every factor reducing combatants' willingness to fight is considered. Similarly, Iraqi and Afghani civilians are often not intimidated by female soldiers.

Melody Kemp mentions that the Australian soldiers have voiced similar concern saying these soldiers "are reluctant to take women on reconnaissance or special operations, as they fear that in the case of combat or discovery, their priority will be to save the women and not to complete the mission. Thus while men might be able to be programmed to kill, it’s is not as easy to program men to neglect women."^[7]

[edit] Recent history of changes in women's roles by country

[edit] Australia

The first women became involved with the Australian armed forces with the creation of the Army Nursing Service 1899. Currently, women make up 12.8% of the Australian Defence Force (with 15.1% in the Royal Australian Air Force, 14.6% in the Royal Australian Navy and 17.5% in the Australian Army).^[8] However, only 74% of the total number of available roles in the Australian armed forces are available to women. Despite this, using 1998-99 figures, the ADF had the highest percentage of women in its employ in the world.^[9] In 1998 Australia became the second nation in the world to allow women to serve on its submarines.

Like many other countries, Australia does not permit women to serve in the following military positions involving 'direct combat', as defined by the 1983 Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW):

• Clearance diving teams
• Infantry
• Armour
• Artillery
• Combat Engineers
• Airfield defence guards or ground defence officers

Health and safety reasons also exclude women from surface finishing and electroplating within the Air Force due to the use of embryo-toxic substances. Australia was the second country to permit female crew on submarines, doing so in June 1998 on board Collins Class submarines. Australia's first deployment of female sailors in a combat zone was aboard the HMAS Westralia in the Persian Gulf during the 1991 Gulf War.

In 1992, allegations of alleged sexual harassment on board HMAS Swan were investigated, and in 1998 similar allegations arose in the Australian Defence Force Academy.

[edit] Britain

Women are allowed to join the British Armed forces in all roles except those whose "primary duty is to close with and kill the enemy." They are not permitted to drive tanks, serve on submarines or as mine clearance divers, and they are currently 9% of the British armed forces.^[10]However, like the United States, female combatants are found throughout Britain’s military history.^[11]

One of the most renown female military figures in history was Queen Boudicca, who led warriors of the Iceni tribe against Roman forces occupying Britain around AD 62, her legacy is often quoted in support of arguments calling for the full opening up of the British Armed forces to women.

During the 1776 American War of Independence, it is estimated that over 5000 women accompanied British forces. Many of these would have been the wives of high ranking officers, however a large number were the wives of serving soldiers. While as much as possible women were left in the camp, they sometimes accompanied forces in their baggage trains, and were occasionally caught in combat and killed or taken prisoner.

During World War I the British Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps was formed, and Lieutenant-General H Lawson recommended using it in France in 1917. Sir Neville Macready, the Adjutant-General, supported the idea that women and men should be treated the same at the front. Women served in the British Army during World War One as cooks, medical staff and clerical staff, however women were not permitted to be officers, and there were many disputes over pay.

Prior to World War II, in 1938 the Auxiliary Territorial Service was created, with 20’000 women serving in non-combat roles during the conflict as well as serving as military police and gun crews. The First Aid Nursing Yeomanry was incorporated into this service.

In 1949 women were officially recognized as a permanent part of British Armed forces, though full combat roles were still available only to men. In this year, the Women's Royal Army Corps was created to replace the WAAC, and in 1950 the ranks were normalised with the ranks of men serving in the British Army.

In 1992 British Army units devoted only to women were disbanded, and women were distributed amongst the same units in which men served. In the present day, women are not permitted to serve in the Royal Armoured Corps, Infantry, Special Air Service, Royal Marines (except the RM Band Service) or the RAF Regiment.

The seizure of Royal Navy sailor Faye Turney in 2007 by the naval forces of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard prompted debate about the role of women and mothers in the armed forces.^[12]

[edit] Canada

During the First World War, over 2300 women served overseas in the Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps. Canadian women were also organised into possible uniformed home guard units, undertaking military training in paramilitary groups. During the Second World War, 5000 women of the Canadian Medical Corps again served overseas, however they were not permitted to serve on combat warships or in combat teams. 45,000 Canadian women served as support staff in every theatre of the conflict, driving heavy equipment, rigging parachutes, as well as clerical work, telephone operation and cooking. 5000 women performed similar occupations during Canada’s part in the Korean War of 1950-1953.

In 1965 the Canadian government decided to allow a maximum of 1500 women to serve in all three branches of its armed forces, and in 1970 the government created a set of rules for the armed forces designed to encourage equal opportunities. These included the standardisation of enlistment criteria, equal pay and pensions, and allowing women to enroll in all aspects of the Canadian armed forces and making it possible for women to reach any rank. In 1974 the first woman, Major Wendy Clay earned her pilot's wings in the Canadian armed forces, and four years later the first woman qualified for the Canadian skydiving demonstration team, the Skyhawks.

Between 1979 and 1985 the role of women expands further, with military colleges allowing women to enroll. 1981 saw the first female navigator and helicopter pilot, and in 1982 laws were passed ending all discrimination in employment, and combat related rolls in the Canadian Armed forces were opened for women, with no restrictions in place, with the exception of the submarine service. In 1986 further laws were created to the same effect. The following years saw Canada’s first female infantry soldier, first female gunner, and a female Brigadier-General.

In 1990 the Ministers Advisory Board on Women in the Canadian Forces was created, and in 1994 a woman was promoted to Major-General. In 2000 Major Micky Colton became the first female to log 10’000 flying hours in a C-130 Hercules. Women were permitted to serve on board Canadian submarines in 2002 with the acquisition of the Victoria-class submarine. Master Seaman Colleen Beattie became the first female submariner in 2003.

Canadian women have also become clearance divers, and commanded large infantry units and Canadian warships.

On May 17, 2006 Captain Nichola Goddard became the first Canadian woman killed in combat during operations in Afghanistan.

[edit] Denmark

Women were employed in the Danish armed forces as early as 1934 with the Ground Observer Corps, Danish Women’s Army Corps and Naval Corps in 1946 and the Women’s Air Force since 1953. In 1962 the Danish parliament passed laws allowing women to volunteer in the regular Danish armed forces as long as they did not serve in units experiencing direct combat. 1971 saw the enlistment of women as non-commissioned officers, with military academies allowing women in 1974.

In 1978, based on the reports of studies on the topic, women were allowed to enlist in an all areas of the Danish armed forces, with combat trials in the eighties exploring the capabilities of women in combat. In 1998 laws were passed allowing women to sample military life in the same way as conscripted men, however without being completely open to conscription. Women in the Danish military come under the command of the Chief of Defence.^[13]

As of 2002 the highest rank reached by a woman in the Danish armed forces was Lieutenant Colonel, with 5% (862) women in the services, 98 officers, 191 NCOs, and 571 privates[1]. However recent recruitment of women has been low in Denmark due to rising job opportunities elsewhere. NATO reports also indicate that the Danish military does not promote women to positions of leadership.^[14]

As with many nations with women in their armed forces, Denmark operates different basic physical requirements for men and women in their armed forces, however the requirements for the more physically demanding jobs do not differ for either sex.

[edit] Finland

Finnish Defence Forces does not conscript women. However, since 1995, the women between 18 and 30 years of age have the possibility of voluntarily undertaking the military service in the Defence Forces or in the Finnish Border Guard. The females serve under the same conditions than men, with the exception that during 45 first days of service they have the option to leave the military without consequences. After that, they must complete the service which lasts 6, 9 or 12 months. After the service, the females face the same reserve obligations as the males who have done the obligatory military service. If the female in national service experiences a conscientious crisis which prevents her from fulfilling her military service or reserve obligations, she is ordered to the alternative civilian service, which lasts 13 months.^[15]

All services and units in the Finnish Defence Forces and the Finnish Border Guard accept females. In garrison environment, the females are lodged in separate rooms and are given separate toilet and bath facilities. In exercises and aboard ships, women are lodged with men. The women in national service are given an extra allowance of €0,40 per diem for sanitary articles and smallclothes.^[16] The females in military service are usually well motivated and some 60% of them receive either NCO or reserve officer training. Yearly, some 500 women complete the voluntary military service, while some 30.000 men complete the obligatory conscription.^[17]

The women who have completed the voluntary military service are eligible for further military employment. If they have at least NCO training, they can apply for career NCO positions or for officer training. These career paths have been open since 1996, when the first women completed the military service. In 2005, 32 female career officers were in service. The number of female warrant officers was 16 and the number of female specialist officers 7. In comparison, there were a total of 2.584 officers and 894 specialist officers in service. The women made up about 16% of the total career NCO cadre. However, most of these career NCOs were grandfathered former female enlistees who had not undertaken military service.^[18]

[edit] France

A recent study (December 2006^[19]) shows that women represent 19% of all French military personnel. They are allowed to serve in all posts (including combat infantry), except submarines and riot control gendarmerie. However, they still represent a small part of the personnel in the following specialties: combat, security, mechanics, especially within the infantry and marines (only 337 - 1.7% - combat infantry soldiers and 9 - 0.4% - marines are female).

[edit] Germany

Germany had employed one of the most conservative gender-policies of any NATO country.^[20] During the final months of World War Two, young boys and old men were called up to fight the advancing Soviet forces, however no women were called upon, despite the country's long history of female fighting figures.^[21]

In the year 1975 the first women were appointed for the medical service of the German Bundeswehr. In 1994 Verena von Weymarn accomplished the grade "Surgeon General of the Air Force". But it was not until January 2001 that women first joined German combat units, following a court ruling by the European Court of Justice. 244 of the first 1,900 women who signed up following the law change were admitted on the first day of the new rules, the majority of them joining the army and air force.^[22]

Before 2000 4,400 women only occupied medical or musical roles within the German armed forces. The new legislations have initially not received full military support. A report on the subject commented that, regarding the older male soldiers, "The way they see themselves as male fighters is shattered.^[23] Der Spiegel, a leading German magazine, produced an article taking negative views of the new laws.

The change in the law was prompted after a female electronics operative argued her case to the European Court of Justice. The court ruled that preventing women from occupying combat roles in the armed forces was against sexual equality principles. Like many countries who have accepted women into combat roles, Germany conducts special courses on preventing sexual harassment.^[24] As of January 2006 about 12,000 female soldiers, including cadets, served in the Bundeswehr which represents a share of 6.5 percent of all troops except conscripted soldiers. The German Bundeswehr now expects the percentage of all female personnel to rise to about 15 percent in the middle-term future.^[25]

It was recently released that the first woman in the German airforce received her jetfighter licence.^[26]

[edit] Israel

The Israeli Defense Force was founded. Several women transport pilots served in the 1948 war of independence and "Operation Kadesh" in 1956), but later the Air Force closed its ranks to female pilots. There is a draft of both men and women. Most women serve in non-combat positions, and are conscripted for only two years (instead of three for men). However, they were largely barred from combat until a landmark high court appeal in 1994, which forced the Air Force to accept women air cadets. In 2001, Israel's first female combat pilot received her wings. Until 2005, up to 83% of positions in the Israeli army were open to women, and today, they serve in combat positions in the artillery, frontier guards and on Navy ships. Combat duty is voluntary for women.

[edit] New Zealand

New Zealand has no restrictions on roles for women in its defence force. They are able to serve in the Special Air Service, infantry, armour and artillery. This came into effect in 2001 by subordinate legislation.

[edit] Nepal

It is worth noting that Peoples Liberation Army, the armed forces of the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) have a 30% female participation quota for their combat forces, and frequently claim 40% actual participation.^[27] A proposal of a 40% female combat troop quota in the future Nepal Army has been frequently forwarded publicly by Maoist leaders during their peace negotiations with the current government.

[edit] Norway

Women in Norway have been able to fill military roles since 1938, and during the Second World War both enlisted women and female officers served in all branches of the military. However in 1947 political changes commanded that women only serve in civilian posts., with reservists allowing women to join them in 1959.

Between 1977 and 1984, the Norwegian Parliament passed laws expanding the role of women in the Norwegian Armed Forces, and in 1985 the equal opportunities legislations were applied to the military. Norwegian women are permitted to serve in a voluntary basis, however in the event of national mobilisation they will be under the same pressures as men.

In 1995, Norway became the first country to allow women to serve on its military submarines, and to this date there has been at least one female commander of a Norwegian submarine.^[28], the first Solveig Krey in 1995.^[29]

The Norwegian government has set a target of 15% of their armed forces to consist of women by 2008, from the 2006 value of 6.6%.^[30] This aims are accompanied with efforts to increase the awareness of sexual exploitation and gender issues within the armed forces. All women between 18-20 are given the opportunity to attend national conscription selection.

Currently, each section of the Norwegian armed forces contains the current number of women (as of 2006):

• Army 132
• Navy 115
• Air force 83
• Home Guard 13
• Logistics 111

The highest rank currently attained by a woman in the Norwegian armed forces is that of Brigadier.

[edit] Russia

Women have had the legal right to serve in the Russian Armed Forces throughout the post Second World War period, with many all-female units existing as far back as World War One. By the early 1990’s, 100’000 women made up 3% of the Russian Armed Forces, with the current tally standing at around 115’00 to 160’000, representing 10% of Russia’s military strength.

During the First World War, heavy defeats led to the loss of millions of Russian soldiers. To psychologically energize morale Alexander Kerensky (leader of Russia after the February Revolution) ordered the creation of the Woman’s Death Battalion in May 1917. After three months of fighting, the size of this all-female unit fell from 2000 to 250.^[31] In November 1917, the Bolsheviks dissolved the unit.

During the Second World War, the Soviet Union had a female military strength of over one million women[2] who served as snipers, machine gunners, and tank crew members. Very few of these women, however, were ever promoted to officers.

In 1942 the Soviet Union formed three regiments of women combat pilots to fly night bombing missions over Germany, the 588th Night Bomber Regiment, later called the 46th Taman Guards Night Bomber Aviation Regiment. These women took part in regular harassment bombing against the Germans in Polikarpov Po-2 biplanes, and participated in the final onslaught against Berlin. The regiments, collectively known to the Germans as the "Nachthexen" ("Night Witches"), flew more than 24,000 sorties and won in total 23 Hero of the Soviet Union medals. Lyudmila Pavlichenko, who made 309 confirmed kills during the Second World War, was one of the many female snipers of the Soviet Army.

In 1967, the Russian Universal Military Duty Laws concluded that women offered the greater source of available combat soldiers during periods of large scale mobilisation. Thus, several programs during the height of the cold war were set up to encourage women to enlist. Participation in military orientated youth programs and forced participation in the reserves for ex-servicewomen up to the age of 40 are some examples. Universities contained reservist officer training which accompanied a place in the reserves themselves.

Today, the Russian army runs the Miss Russian Army beauty contest for attractive female Russian soldiers. Colonel Gennady Dzyuba, of the Defense Ministry, said of the 2005 contest that "Those who have served, especially in hot spots, know the importance of women in the armed forces.”

[edit] Thailand

Thailand has recently begun recruiting and training women to conduct counter-insurgency operations.^[32] A ranger commander said that when women are protesting, "It is better for women to do the talking. Male soldiers look tough and aggressive. When women go and talk, people tend to be more relaxed."

[edit] United States

The Woman’s Army Auxiliary Corps was established in the United States in 1941. However, political pressures stalled the waylaid attempts to create more roles for women in the American Armed Forces. Women saw combat during World War II, firstly as nurses in the Pearl Harbor attacks on 7 December 1941. The Woman’s Naval Reserve and Marine Corps Women’s Reserve were also created during this conflict. In July 1943 a bill was signed removing ‘auxiliary’ from the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps, making it an official part of the regular army. In 1944 WAC’s arrived in the Pacific and landed in Normandy on D-Day. During the war, 67 Army nurses and 16 Navy nurses were captured and spent three years as Japanese prisoners of war. There were 350,000 American women who served during World War Two and 16 were killed in action; in total, they gained over 1,500 medals, citations and commendations.

After World War Two, demobilisation led to the vast majority of serving women being returned to civilian life. Law 625, The Women's Armed Services Act of 1948, was signed by President Truman, allowing women to serve in the armed forces in fully integrated units during peace time, with only the WAC remaining a separate female unit. During the Korean War of 1950–1953 many women served in the Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals, with women serving in Korea numbering 120,000 during the conflict.

Records regarding American women serving in the Vietnam War are vague. However, it is recorded that 600 women served in the country as part of the Air Force, along with 500 members of the WAC, and over 6000 medical personnel and support staff.

America’s involvement in Grenada in 1983 saw over 200 women serving; however, none of these took part in direct combat. Some women, such as Lt Col Eileen Collins or Lt Celeste Hayes, flew transport aircraft carrying wounded or assault teams, however they were not deemed to have been in direct combat. Several hundred women also took part in operations in Panama in 1989, though again in non-combat roles.

The 1991 Gulf War proved to be the pivotal time for the role of women in the American Armed forces to come to the attention of the world media. A senior woman pilot at the time, Colonel Kelly Hamilton, commented that "[t]he conflict was an awakening for the people in the US. They suddenly realised there were a lot of women in the military." Over 40,000 women served in almost every role the armed forces had to offer. However, while many came under fire, they were not permitted to participate in deliberate ground engagements. Despite this, there are many reports of women engaging enemy forces during the conflict [3].

Today, women can serve on American combat ships, to include command. However women are not permitted to serve on submarines or to participate in special forces programs such as Navy Seals. Women are barred from serving in Infantry, Special Operations, Artillery, Armour, and Forward Air Defence. Women can fly military aircraft, but make up 2% of all pilots in the US military. So far the position closest to combat open to women in the U.S. Army are in the Military Police, where women man machine-guns on armoured Humvees, guarding truck convoys. Although Army regulations bar women from infantry assignments, some female MPs are detailed to accompany male infantry units to handle search and interrogation of female Iraqi suspects.

The case United States v. Virginia, in which the Supreme Court ordered that the Virginia Military Institute allow women to register as cadets, gave women soldiers a weapon against laws which (quoting J. Ruth Bader Ginsburg) “[deny] to women, simply because they are women, full citizenship stature—equal opportunity to aspire, achieve, participate in and contribute to society.”

As of now there are Fifty Thousand Females serving in Afghanistan and Iraq, Females make up about fifteen percent of the army.

In 2003, American soldier Jessica Lynch was captured while serving in Iraq. In a recent scandal, U.S Army Reservists Lynndie England and Sabrina Harman were convicted by court martial of torturing prisoners at Abu Ghraib prison.

In 2003, Lori Piestewa, a U.S. soldier, died after driving her Humvee through enemy fire in an attempt to escape an ambush, earning a Purple Heart.

[edit] The particular debate over women on submarines

Allowing women to serve on submarines has been one major point of focus for those seeking more opportunities for women in the armed forces.

In 1995 the Royal Norwegian Navy became the first navy in the world to appoint a female submarine captain. In 1998, the Royal Australian Navy became the second nation to allow women to serve on combat submarines. Canada and Spain followed in permitting women to serve on military submarines, however all other nations still prevent women from serving on them.

The usual reasons for barring women that are given are: lack of privacy, and "hot bunking" or "hot racking", as due to lack of space this is a common practice on submarines where three sailors share two bunks on a rotating basis. There was also references to the dangers of females of child bearing age^[34] as certain chemicals present in the recycled air on board submerged submarines can be harmful to unborn children.

The US Navy, which permits women to serve on almost every other ship in the fleet, only allows three exceptions for women being on board military submarines: (1) Female civilian technicians for a few days at most; (2) Women midshipmen on an overnight during summer training for both Navy ROTC and Naval Academy; (3) Family members for one-day dependent cruises. The US Navy argues it would cost $300,000 per bunk to permit women to serve on submarines versus $4,000 per bunk to allow women to serve on aircraft carriers.^[35]

[edit] In popular culture portrayals

Since Sigourney Weaver starred as Lieutenant Ellen Ripley in the Alien movies during the 1980s, the depiction of the female characters as fearless warriors made a considerable impression in the North American perception of women in warfare, particularly in the futuristic world. This fictional portrayal of a female warrior demonstrating professional competence in a military role was a departure from previous films where the heroine lacked such attributes.

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

[edit] Printed material:

• Ellis, John. World War II - A statistical survey Facts on File 1993. ISBN 0816029717
• Elshtain, Jean Bethke. Women and War (1995)
• Goldman, Nancy. "The Changing Role Of Women In The Armed Forces." American Journal Of Sociology 1973 78(4): 892-911. Issn: 0002-9602 online in Jstor
• Goldstein, Joshua S. . War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa (2003), psychology perspective
• Herbert, Melissa S. Camouflage Isn't Only for Combat: Gender, Sexuality, and Women in the Military New York U. Pr., 1998.
• Holm, Jeanne. Women in the Military: An Unfinished Revolution (1993) on USA.
• Jones, David Women Warriors: A History, Brassey's,1997
• Salmonson, Jessica Amanda (1991). The Encyclopedia of Amazons. Paragon House. ISBN 1-55778-420-5. 
• Skaine, Rosemarie. Women at War: Gender Issues of Americans in Combat. McFarland, 1999.

[edit] Websites:

• The Joan-of-Arc archive.joan-of-arc.org archive retrived on March 12, 2007
• Blitzkrieg Baby blitzkriegbaby.de site for Women in the military, retrived on March 12, 2007
• Women in the Military: A Selected Bibliography from this link, Jacqueline S. Bey, 2005, retrived on March 12, 2007
• IBC's Oldest American Servicewoman Killed In Combat, retrived on March 12, 2007
• "Long, hard struggle" for green beretarticle from BBC News Online Scotland, 31 May 2002, retrived on March 12, 2007
• Superwoman Pip's green beret test BBC news article, BBC News Online Scotland, 31 May 2002, retrived on March 12, 2007
• MilitaryWoman site, at militarywoman.org, retrived on March 12, 2007
• post-gazette.com retrived on March 12, 2007
• Womensenews womensenews.org retrived on March 12, 2007