Guqin

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Guqin
Classification
Chinese Silk (絲)
Western Strings (plucked)
Pronunciation
IPA [tɕʰin], [kutɕʰin] or [tɕʰiɕiɛntɕʰin]
Plain "chin", "goo-chin" or "chi-shien-chin"
Chinese Name
Chinese 琴, 古琴, 七絃琴
Hanyu Pinyin qín, gǔqín, qīxiànqín
Wade-Giles ch'in2, ku3-ch'in2, ch'i1-hsien2-ch'in2
Ancient names 瑤琴 (yáoqín), 玉琴 (yùqín)
Ancient variants 琹, 珡, etc
Other names 國樂之父 (guóyuè zhī fù)
聖人之噐 (shèngrén zhī qì)
Japanese Name
Hiragana きん, こきん, しちげんきん
Hepburn kin, kokin, shichigenkin
Korean Name
Hangul 금 (친), 고금 (구친), 칠현금
McCune-Reischauer kŭm (ch'in), kogŭm (kuch'in), ch'ilhyŏn'gŭm
Revised Romanization geum (chin), gogeum (guchin), chilhyeon-geum
Variant names 徽琴 (hwigŭm / hwigeum)
English Name
Usual spellings qin, guqin
Unusual spellings Gu Qin, GuQin, Gu-qin, Gu qin, Gu Qing, etc...
Organologically correct name (Fretless) Seven-stringed Zither
Other (incorrect) variants used Lute, Harp, Table-harp

The guqin (help·info) (Chinese: 古琴; pinyin: gǔqín; Wade-Giles: ku-ch'in; IPA: [kutɕʰin]; literally "ancient stringed-instrument") is the modern name for a plucked seven-string Chinese musical instrument of the zither family (中華絃樂噐/中华弦乐器). It has been played since ancient times, and has traditionally been favored by scholars and literati as an instrument of great subtlety and refinement, as highlighted by the quote 「士無故不撤琴瑟」, meaning "a gentleman does not part with his qin or se without good reason," [1] as well as being associated with the ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius [2][3]. It is sometimes referred to by the Chinese as 「國樂之父/国乐之父」, meaning "the father of Chinese music" or 「聖人之噐/圣人之器」, meaning "the instrument of the sages".

Traditionally the instrument was called simply qin 「琴」, which can also be written as 「琹」, 「珡」 or other ancient forms, [4] but by the twentieth century the term had come to be applied to many other musical instruments as well. The yangqin 「揚琴/扬琴」 hammered dulcimer, the huqin 「胡琴」 family of bowed string instruments, and the Western piano (Traditional Chinese: 鋼琴; Simplified Chinese: 钢琴; pinyin: gāng qín; literally "steel stringed-instrument") are examples of this usage, so the prefix "gu-" 「古」 (meaning "ancient") was added for clarification. It can also be called qixianqin 「七絃琴」 ("seven-stringed instrument"). The guqin is not to be confused with the guzheng (「古箏/古筝」 "ancient stringed-instrument (with moveable bridges)"), another Chinese long zither also without frets, but with moveable bridges under each string. Because Robert Hans van Gulik's famous book about the qin is called The Lore of the Chinese Lute, the guqin is sometimes inaccurately called a lute. [5] Other incorrect classifications, mainly from music compact discs, include "harp" or "table-harp".

The guqin is a very quiet instrument, with a range of about four octaves, and its open strings are tuned in the bass register. Its lowest pitch is about two octaves below middle C, or the lowest note on the cello. Sounds are produced by plucking open strings, stopped strings, and harmonics. Stopped sounds are noteworthy for the variety of slides and ornaments used, and the use of glissando — sliding tones — gives it a sound reminiscent of a pizzicato cello, fretless double bass or a slide guitar. Extended passages consisting entirely of harmonics are common. This is made possible because the 91 indicated harmonic positions[6] allow great flexibility; early tablature shows that even more harmonic positions were used in the past. By tradition the qin originally had five strings, but ancient qin-like instruments with 10 or more strings have been found. The modern form has been standardized for about two millennia. A number of players and listeners have commented that qin music sounds similar to Blues music in one way or another, but it should be noted that there are also many differences. [7]

Contents

[edit] History

An ancient guqin unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng. Note the tuning pegs, the goose feet and the bridge
An ancient guqin unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng. Note the tuning pegs, the goose feet and the bridge
Main article: Guqin history

Legend has it that the qin, the most revered of all Chinese musical instruments, has a history of about 5,000 years. This legend states that the legendary figures of China's pre-history — Fuxi, Shennong and Huang Di, the "Yellow Emperor" — were involved in its creation. Nearly almost all qin books and tablature collections published prior to the twentieth century state this as the factual origins of the qin, [8] although this is now presently viewed as mythology. It is mentioned in Chinese writings dating back nearly 3,000 years, and related instruments have been found in tombs from about 2,500 years ago. Non-fretted zithers unearthed in southern Chinese tombs show similar instruments that gradually became longer and had fewer strings, but they are not named in the tombs. Chinese tradition says the qin originally had five strings, but then two were added about 1,000 BCE, making seven. Some suggest that larger zithers with many strings gradually got smaller with fewer and fewer strings to reach seven. Whether the southern instruments can be called "qin," or simply southern relatives of a northern instrument that has not survived, is questionable. The extact origins of the qin is still a very much continuing subject of debate over the past few decades. [9]

In 1977, a recording of "Liu Shui" 【流水】 (Flowing Water, as performed by Guan Pinghu, one of the best qin players of the 20th century) was chosen to be included in the Voyager Golden Record, a gold-plated LP recording containing music from around the world, which was sent into outer space by NASA on the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecrafts. It is the longest excerpt included on the disc. In 2003, guqin music was proclaimed as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. [10]

[edit] Guqin literature

Main article: List of guqin literature

There are a number of ancient sources that discuss qin lore, qin theory and general qin literature. Some of these books are available inserted into certain qinpu (qin tablature collections). The basic contents of qin literature is mainly essays discussing and describing the nature of qin music, the theory behind the notes and tones, the method of correct play, the history of qin music, lists of mentions in literature, etc. The detail can be very concise to extremely detailed and thorough. Some are mostly philosophical or artistic musings, others are scientific and technical.

The biggest collection of qin literature in existence is the Ming dynasty Qinshu Daquan 【琴書大全】 (1590), with a collection of 22 volumes.

[edit] Schools, societies and players

The famous painting "Ting Qin Tu" (聽琴圖, Listening to the Qin), by the Song emperor Huizong (1082–1135)
The famous painting "Ting Qin Tu" (聽琴圖, Listening to the Qin), by the Song emperor Huizong (1082–1135)

As with any other musicial tradition, there are differences in ideals and interaction between different people. Therefore, there exists different schools and societies which transmit these different ideas and artistic traditions.

[edit] Historical schools

Main article: Qin schools

Because of the difference in geography in China, many qin schools known as qin pai (琴派) developed over the centuries. Such schools generally formed around areas where qin activity was greatest. The main schools are:

  • Guangling (廣陵/广陵) in Yangzhou 揚州/扬州
  • Yushan (虞山 also known as Qinchuan 琴川 or Shu 熟) in Changshu 常熟
  • Shu (蜀 or Chuan 川) in Sichuan 四川
  • Zhucheng (諸城/诸城) in Shandong 山東/山东
    • Mei'an (梅庵/楳盦), off-shoot of Zhucheng
  • Pucheng (浦城 also known as Min 閩/闽) in Fujian 福建
  • Jiuyi (九嶷) in Beijing 北京
  • Zhe (浙) in Zhejiang 浙江
  • Lingnan (嶺南/岭南) in Guangdong 廣東/广东
  • Shaoxing (紹興/绍兴)
  • Wu (吳/吴)
  • Shan'nan (山南)
  • Songjiang (松江)
  • Jinling (金陵)
  • Fanchuan (泛川)

Some schools have come and gone, some have off-shoots (such as the off-shot of Zhucheng school, the Mei'an school). Often, the school is originated from a single person, such as the Wu school which is named after the late Wu Zhaoji. The style can vary considerably between schools; some are very similar, yet others are very distinct. The differences are often in interpreratation of the music. Northern schools tends to be more vigorous in technique than Southern schools. But in modern terms, the distinction between schools and styles is often blurred because a single player may learn from many different players from different schools and absorb each of their styles. This is especially so for conservatory trained players. People from the same school trained under the same master may have different individual styles (such as Zhang Ziqian and Liu Shaochun of the Guangling school).

[edit] Guqin societies

Main article: List of guqin societies

It should be noted that there is a difference between qin schools and qin societies. The former concerns itself with transmission of a style, the latter concerns itself with performance. The qin society will encourage meetings with fellow qin players in order to play music and maybe discuss the nature of the qin. Gatherings like this is called yajis, or "elegant gatherings", which take place once every month or two. Sometimes, societies may go on excursions to places of natural beauty to play qin, or attend conferences. They may also participate in competitions or research. Of course, societies do not have to have a strict structure to adhere to; it could mostly be on a leisurely basis. The main purpose of qin societies is to promote and play qin music. It is often a good opportunity to network and learn to play the instrument, to ask questions and to receive answers.

Most qin schools and societies are based in China, but during the twentieth century many overseas societies began to form. Although qin study was initially confined to China in ancient times, countries like Japan also have their own qin traditions via import from China, but are extremely small in scale. The Tokyo Qin Society was recently founded, opening up more opportunities for qin study in Japan. Japan has published a qinpu (qin tablature collection) in the past, known as Toukou Kinpu or Donggao Qinpu 【東臯琴譜】. Other qin societies exist in North America and Europe, which are less formal than their counterparts in mainland China, such as the North American Guqin Association and the London Youlan Qin Society.

[edit] Players

Many artists down through the ages have played the instrument, and the instrument was a favourite of scholars. Certain melodies are also associated with famous figures, such as Confucius and Qu Yuan. Some emperors of China also had a liking to the qin, including the Song dynasty emperor, Huizong, as clearly seen in his own painting of himself playing the qin in "Ting Qin Tu" (聽琴圖, Listening to the Qin) [11].

[edit] Historical

  • Confucius 孔子: Philosopher, 551-479 BCE, associated with the piece Kongzi Duyi 《孔子讀易》, Weibian Sanjue 《韋編三絕/韦编三绝》 and Youlan 《幽蘭/幽兰》.
  • Bo Ya 伯牙: Qin player of the Spring and Autumn Period, associated with the piece Gao Shan 《高山》 and Liu Shui 《流水》.
  • Zhuang Zi 莊子: Daoist philosopher of the Warring States Period, associated with the piece Zhuang Zhou Mengdie 《莊周蒙蝶》 and Shenhua Yin 《神化引》.
  • Qu Yuan 屈原 (340-278 BCE): Poet of the Warring States Period, associated with the piece Li Sao 《離騷》.
  • Cai Yong 蔡邕: Han musician, author of Qin Cao 【琴操】.
  • Cai Wenji 蔡文姬: Cai Yong's daughter, associated with the piece Hujia Shiba-pai 《胡笳十八拍》, etc.
  • Sima Xiangru 司馬相如: Han poet, 179-117 BCE.
  • Zhuge Liang 諸葛亮 (181-234): Chinese military leader in the Three Kingdoms, one legend has him playing guqin calmly outside his fort while scaring off the enemy attackers.
  • Xi Kang 嵇康: Sage of the Bamboo Grove, musician and poet, writer of Qin Fu 【琴賦】.
  • Li Bai 李白: Tang poet, 701-762.
  • Bai Juyi 白居易: Tang poet, 772-846.
  • Song Huizong 宋徽宗: Song emperor famous for his patronage of the arts, had a Wanqin Tang 『萬琴堂』 ("10,000 Qin Hall") in his palace.
  • Guo Chuwang 郭楚望: Patriot at the end of the Song Dynasty, composer of the piece Xiaoxiang Shuiyun 《瀟湘水雲/潇湘水云》.

The classical collections such as Qin Shi, Qinshi Bu and Qinshi Xu include biographies of hundreds more players. [12]

Qin player Guan Pinghu 管平湖
Qin player Guan Pinghu 管平湖

[edit] Contemporary

Main article: Contemporary guqin players

Contemporary qin players extend from the early twentieth century to the present. More so than in the past, such players tend to have many different pursuits and occupations other than qin playing. There are only a few players who are paid to exclusively play and research the guqin professionally and nothing else. Qin players can also be well-versed in other cultural pursuits, such as the arts. Or they can do independent research on music subjects. Often, players may play other instruments (not necessary Chinese) and give recitals or talks.

[edit] Performance

The note range of a qin
The note range of a qin

In the performance and playing of the qin, the player will use a variety of techniques to utilise the full potential of the instrument. They would read the specialist and unique tablature that was developed over the centuries and amass a repertoire of popular and ancient tunes for the qin.

[edit] Playing technique

Main article: Guqin playing technique

The beauty of qin melodies comes not only from the melodies themselves, but from the colors a player can apply to the individual tones and their combinations [13]. The exceedingly rich tones of the qin can be categorised as three distinctively different "sounds." The first is san yin 〔散音〕, which means "scattered sounds." This is produced by plucking the required string to sound an open note Listen (help·info). The second is fan yin 〔泛音〕, or "floating sounds." These are harmonics, in which the player lightly touches the string with one or more fingers of the left hand at a position indicated by the hui dots, pluck and lift, creating a crisp and clear sound Listen (help·info). The third is an yin 〔按音 / 案音 / 實音 / 走音〕, or "stopped sounds." This forms the bulk of most qin pieces and requires the player to press on a string with a finger or thumb of the left hand until it connects with the surface board, then pluck. Afterwards, the musician's hand often slides up and down, thereby modifying the pitch [14]. This technique is similar to that of playing a slide guitar across the player's lap, however, the technique of the qin is very varied and utilises the whole hand, whilst a slide guitar only has around 3 or 4 main techniques Listen to Pei Lan (help·info).

According to the book, Cunjian Guqin Zhifa Puzi Jilan, there are around 1,070 different finger technqiues used for the qin, with or without names. It is therefore, the only instrument in Chinese music, or even Western music, which uses the most finger techniques [15]. Most are obsolete, but around 50 or so are sufficient to know in modern practice.

〈挑〉 Tiao

〈勾〉 Gou

〈劈〉 Pi

〈撥〉 Bo

〈滚〉 Gun

〈上〉 Shang

〈掐起 / 搯起〉 Qiaqi

〈掩 / 罨〉 Yan
The top four figures are from an old handbook, the bottom four are photos. [16]

[edit] Tablature and notation

First section of Youlan, showing the name of the piece: 《碣石調幽蘭第五》 "Jieshi Diao Youlan No.5", the preface describing the piece's origins, and the tablature in longhand form.
First section of Youlan, showing the name of the piece: 《碣石調幽蘭第五》 "Jieshi Diao Youlan No.5", the preface describing the piece's origins, and the tablature in longhand form.
Main article: Guqin notation
See also: Qinpu
Wikisource
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Written qin music did not directly tell what notes were played; instead, it was written in a tablature detailing tuning, finger positions, and stroke technique, thus comprising a step by step method and description of how to play a piece. Some tablatures do indicate notes using the gongche system, or indicate rhythm using dots. The earliest example of the modern shorthand tablature survives from around the twelfth century CE. An earlier form of music notation from the Tang era survives in just one manuscript, dated to the seventh century CE, called Jieshi Diao Youlan 《碣石調幽蘭》 (Solitary Orchid in Stone Tablet Mode). It is written in a longhand form called wenzi pu 〔文字譜〕 (literally "written notation"), said to have been created by Yong Menzhou (雍門周) during the Warring States Period, which gives all the details using ordinary written Chinese characters. Later in the Tang dynasty Cao Rou (曹柔) and others simplified the notation, using only the important elements of the characters (like string number, plucking technique, hui number and which finger to stop the string) and combined them into one character notation. This meant that instead of having two lines of written text to describe a few notes, a single character could represent one note, or sometimes as many as nine. This notation form was called jianzi pu 〔減字譜〕 (literally "reduced notation") and it was a great leap forward for recording qin pieces. It was so successful that from the Ming dynasty onwards, a great many qinpu 〔琴譜〕 (qin tablature collections) appeared, the most famous and useful being "Shenqi Mipu" (The Mysterious and Marvellous Tablature) compiled by Zhu Quan, the 17th son of the founder of the Ming dynasty [17]. In the 1960s, Zha Fuxi discovered more than 130 qinpu that contain well over 3360 pieces of written music. Sadly, many qinpu compiled before the Ming dynasty are now lost, and many pieces have remained unplayed for hundreds of years. [18]

[edit] Repertoire

The Qinxue Rumen 【琴學入門】 (1864) tablature has dots and gongche notation next to the qin tablature to indicate beats and notes.
The Qinxue Rumen 【琴學入門】 (1864) tablature has dots and gongche notation next to the qin tablature to indicate beats and notes.

Qin pieces are usually around three to eight minutes in length, with the longest being "Guangling San" 《廣陵散》, which is 22 minutes long. Other famous pieces include "Liu Shui" 《流水》 (Flowing Water), "Yangguan San Die" 《陽關三疊/阳关三叠》 (Three Refrains on the Yang Pass Theme), "Meihua San Nong" 《梅花三弄》 (Three Variations on the Plum Blossom Theme), "Xiao Xiang Shui Yun" 《瀟湘水雲》 (Mist and Clouds over the Xiao and Xiang Rivers), and "Pingsha Luo Yan" 《平沙落雁》 (Wild Geese Descending on the Sandbank). The average player will generally have a repertoire of around ten pieces which they will aim to play very well, learning new pieces as and when they feel like it or if the opportunity arises. Players mainly learn popular well transcribed versions, often using a recording as a reference. In addition to learning to play established or ancient pieces very well, highly skilled qin players may also compose or improvise, although the player must be very good and extremely familiar with the instrument to pull off successfully. A number of qin melodies are program music depicting the natural world.

A list of guqin pieces which includes mostly played pieces, is used for Guqin Certification Examinations in China. [19]

[edit] Transcription

Dapu 〔打譜〕 is the transcribing of old tablature into a playable form. This can be used to create new music as well as to reconstruct the ancient melodies [20]. Since qin tablature does not indicate note value, tempo or rhythm, the player must work it out for him/herself. Normally, qin players will learn the rhythm of a piece through a teacher or master. They sit facing one another, with the student copying the master. The tablature will only be consulted if the teacher is not sure of how to play a certain part. Because of this, traditional qinpu do not indicate them (though near the end of the Qing dynasty, a handful of qinpu had started to employ various rhythm indicating devices, such as dots). If one did not have a teacher, then one had to work out the rhythm by themselves. But it would be a mistake to assume that qin music is devoid of rhythm and melody. By the 20th century, there had been attempts to try to replace the "jianzi pu" notation, but so far, it has been unsuccessful; since the 20th century, qin music is generally printed with staff notation above the qin tablature. Because qin tablature is so useful, logical, easy, and the fastest way (once the performer knows how to read the notation) of learning a piece, it is invaluable to the qin player and cannot totally be replaced (just as staff notation cannot be replaced for Western instruments, because they developed a notation system that suited the instruments well). There are two views of how to best utilize dapu: one is to use it to create new music, and the other is to use it to reconstruct the way the original music was played. [21]

The Qinxue Congshu 【琴學叢書】 (1910) uses a more detailed system involving a grid next to main qin notation; right grid line indicates note, middle indicates beat, left indicates how the qin tablature relates to the rhythm.
The Qinxue Congshu 【琴學叢書】 (1910) uses a more detailed system involving a grid next to main qin notation; right grid line indicates note, middle indicates beat, left indicates how the qin tablature relates to the rhythm.

There is a saying that goes "a short piece requires three months [of dapu to complete], and a long piece requires three years". In actual practice, it needn't be that long to dapu a piece, but suggests that the player will have not only memorised the piece off by heart, but also have their fingering, rhythm and timing corrected. And afterwards, the emotion must be put into the piece. Therefore, it could be said that it really does require three months or years to finish dapu of a piece in order for them to play it to a very high standard.

[edit] Rhythm in qin music

It has already been discussed that qin music has a rhythm, and that it is only vaguely indicated in the tablature [22]. Though there is an amount of guesswork involved, the tablature has clues to indicate rhythm, such as repeating motifs, indication of phrases or how the notation is arranged. Throughout the history of the qinpu, we see many attempts to indicate this rhythm more explicitly, involving devices like dots to make beats. Probably, one of the major projects to regulate the rhythm to a large scale was the compilers of the Qinxue Congshu tablature collection of 1910's to 1930's. The construction of the written tablature was divided into two columns. The first was further divided into about three lines of a grid, each line indicating a varied combination of lyrics, gongche tablature, se tablature, pitch, and/or beats depending on the score used. The second column was devoted to qin tablature.

Western composers have noticed that the rhythm in a piece of qin music can change; once they seem to have got a beat, the beats change. This is due to the fact that qin players may use some free rhythm in their playing. Whatever beat they use will depend on the emotion or the feeling of the player, and how he interperates the piece. However, some melodies have sections of fixed rhythm which is played the same way generally. The main theme of Meihua Sannong, for example, uses this. Some sections of certain melodies require the player to play faster with force to express the emotion of the piece. Examples include the middle sections of Guangling San and Xiaoxiang Shuiyun. Other pieces, such as Jiu Kuang has a fixed rhythm throughout the entire piece.

Generally, qin melodies sound better with a rhythm and the composers had that in mind when creating pieces.

[edit] Organology

Whilst the qin followed a certain grammar of acoustic in its construction, its external form could and did take on a huge amount of variation, whether it be from the embellishments or even the basic structure of the instrument. Qin tablatures from the Song era onwards have catalogued a plethora of qin forms. All, however, obey very basic rules of acoustics and symbolism of form. The qin uses strings of silk or metal-nylon and is tuned in accordance to traditional principles.

[edit] Construction

Main article: Guqin construction

According to tradition, the qin originally had five strings, representing the five elements of metal, wood, water, fire and earth. Later, in the Zhou dynasty, Zhou Wen Wang (周文王) added a sixth string to mourn his son, Bo Yihou (伯邑考). His successor, Zhou Wu Wang, added a seventh string to motivate his troops into battle with the Shang. The thirteen hui 『徽』 on the surface represent the 13 months of the year (the extra 13th is the 'leap month' in the lunar calendar). The surface board is round to represent Heaven and the bottom board flat to represent earth. The entire length of the qin (in Chinese measurements) is 3 chi, 6 cun and 5 fen 「三尺六寸五分」; representing the 365 days of the year (though this is just a standard since qins can be shorter or longer depending on the period's measurement standard or the maker's preference). Each part of the qin has meaning, some more obvious, like "dragon pool" 『龍池/龙池』 and "phoenix pond" 『鳳沼/凤沼』.

Names of (from left to right) the front, inside and back parts of the qin
Names of (from left to right) the front, inside and back parts of the qin

[edit] Strings

Main article: Guqin strings

Until the Cultural Revolution, the guqin's strings were always made of various thicknesses of twisted silk 『絲/丝』, but since then most players use modern nylon-flatwound steel strings 『鋼絲/钢丝』. This was partly due to the scarcity of high quality silk strings and partly due to the newer strings' greater durability and louder tone.

Silk strings are made by gathering a prescribed number of strands of silk thread, then twisting them tightly together. The twisted cord of strings is then wrapped around a frame and immersed in a vat of liquid composed of a special mixture of natural glue that binds the strands together. The strings is taken out and left to dry, before being cut into the appropriate length. The top thicker strings (i.e. strings one to four) are further wrapped in a thin silk thread, coiled around the core to make it smoother. According to ancient manuals, there are three distinctive gauges of thickness that one can make the strings. The first is taigu 〖太古〗 [Great Antiquity] which is the standard gauge, the zhongqing 〖中清〗 [Middle Clarity] is thinner, whilst the jiazhong 〖加重〗 [Added Thickness] is thicker. According to the Yugu Zhai Qinpu, zhongqing is the best.

A selection of different qin strings. Top to bottom: 〖太古琴絃〗 Taigu Silk Qin Strings [中清 zhongqing gauge] with a container of 'string gum' 「絃膠」, 〖上音牌琴弦〗 Shangyin Shanghai Conservatorie Quality Qin Strings (metal-nylon), 〖虎丘古琴絃〗 Huqiu Silk Strings
A selection of different qin strings. Top to bottom: 〖太古琴絃〗 Taigu Silk Qin Strings [中清 zhongqing gauge] with a container of 'string gum' 「絃膠」, 〖上音牌琴弦〗 Shangyin Shanghai Conservatorie Quality Qin Strings (metal-nylon), 〖虎丘古琴絃〗 Huqiu Silk Strings

Although most contemporary players use nylon-wrapped metal strings, some argue that nylon-wrapped metal strings cannot replace silk strings for their refinement of tone. Further, it is the case that nylon-wrapped metal strings can cause damage to the wood of old qins. Many traditionalists feel that the sound of the fingers of the left hand sliding on the strings to be a distinctive feature of qin music. The modern nylon-wrapped metal strings were very smooth in the past, but are now slightly modified in order to capture these sliding sounds.

Although silk strings tend to break more often than metal nylon ones, they are stronger than one may be led to think. Silk is very flexible, and can be strung to high tensions and tuned up to the standard pitch that was proposed by mainland China (5th string at A) without breaking. Also, although they may be more likely to break at higher tension, they are hardly discardable once a string has broken. Silk strings tend to be very long (more than 2 metres) and break at the point where it rubs on the bridge. One simply ties another butterfly knot at the broken end, cut the frayed bit, then re-string. In this way, the string can be re-used up to ten times for the thinner strings (three or four times for thicker ones), and every set includes an extra seventh (most likely to break) and probably a fourth (next most likely to break). Because silk strings break easily, there are very few that survive from the past dynasties.

Traditionally, the strings were wrapped around the goose feet 『雁足』, [23] but there has been a device that has been invented, which is a block of wood attached to the goose feet, with pins similar to those used to tune the guzheng protruding out at the sides, so one can string and tune the qin using a tuning wrench. This is good for those who lack the physical strength to pull and add tension to the strings when wrapping the ends to the goose feet. However, the tuning device looks rather unsightly and thus many qin players prefer the traditional manner of tuning; many also feel that the strings should be firmly wrapped to the goose feet in order that the sound may be "grounded" into the qin. Further, one cannot wrap silk strings around such tuning pins as they tend to break more easily at the wrapping end. Stephen Dydo of the United States has recently developed a customised tuning device which uses violin pegs rather than zither pins. It is more suitable for silk strings. However, it is still difficult to control and tune accurately [24]. Such devices are really best used for metal-nylon strings.

[edit] Tuning

Tuning pegs of the guqin. The twisted cord goes through the bottom hole, through the side hole in the neck, around, under and through the hole in the neck again, and out the top hole. Pegs can be made from wood or jade
Tuning pegs of the guqin. The twisted cord goes through the bottom hole, through the side hole in the neck, around, under and through the hole in the neck again, and out the top hole. Pegs can be made from wood or jade
Main article: Guqin tunings

To string a qin, one traditionally had to tie a butterfly knot (shengtou jie 『蠅頭結/蝇头结』) at one end of the string, and slip the string through the twisted cord (rongkou 『絨剅/绒扣』) which goes into holes at the head of the qin and then out the bottom through the tuning pegs (zhen 『軫/轸』). The string is dragged over the bridge (yueshan 『岳山』), across the surface board, over the nut (longyin 『龍齦』 dragon gums) to the back of the qin, where the end is wrapped around one of two legs (fengzu 『鳳足』 "phoenix feet" or yanzu 『雁足』 "geese feet"). Afterwards, the strings are fine tuned using the tuning pegs (sometimes, rosin is used on the part of the tuning peg that touches the qin body to stop it from slipping, especially if the qin is tuned to higher pitches). The most common tuning, "zheng diao" 〈正調〉, is pentatonic: 1 2 4 5 6 1 2 in the traditional Chinese number system or jianpu 〔簡譜/简谱〕 (i.e. 1=do, 2=re, etc). Today this is generally interpreted to mean C D F G A c d, but this should be considered do re fa so la do re, since historically the qin was not tuned to absolute pitch [25]. In fact the same tuning can also be considered as 5 6 1 2 3 5 6 when the third string is played as do [26]. Thus, except when accompanied by other instruments, only the pitch relations between the seven strings needs to be accurate. Other tunings are achieved by adjusting the tension of the strings using the tuning pegs at the head end. Thus manjiao diao 〈慢角調〉 ("slackened third string") gives 1 2 3 5 6 1 2 and ruibin diao 〈蕤賔調/蕤宾调〉 ("raised fifth string") gives 1 2 4 5 7 1 2, which is transposed to 2 3 5 6 1 2 3. It is important to note that in early qin music theory, the word "diao" 〔調〕 means both tuning and mode, but by the Qing period, "diao" meant tuning (of changing pitch) and "yin" 〔音〕 meant mode (of changing scales). Often before a piece, the tablature names the tuning and then the mode using traditional Chinese names: gong 《宮》 (do), shang 《商》 (re), jiao or jue 《角》 (mi), zhi 《徵》 (sol), yu 《羽》 (la), or combinations thereof. [27] A more modern name for tunings uses the word jun 〔均〕 to mean key or pitch of the piece, so for example, zhonglü jun 〈仲吕均〉 means "F key", since zhonglü is the name of the Chinese pitch which Western equivalent is "F".

[edit] Playing context

The guqin is nearly always used a solo instrument, as its quietness of tone means that it cannot compete with the sounds of most other instruments or an ensemble. It can, however, be played together with a xiao (end-blown bamboo flute), with other qin, or played while singing. In old times, the se (a long zither with movable bridges and 25 strings, similar to the Japanese koto) was frequently used in duets with the qin. Sadly, the se has not survived into this century, though duet tablature scores for the instruments are preserved in a few qinpu, and the master qin player Wu Jinglüe was one of only a few in the twentieth century who knew how to play it together with qin in duet. Lately there has been a trend to use other instruments to accompany the qin, such as the xun (ceramic ocarina), pipa (four-stringed pear-shaped lute), dizi (transverse bamboo flute), and others for more experimental purposes.

In order for an instrument to accompany the qin, its sound must be mellow and not overwhelm the qin. Thus, the xiao generally used for this purpose is one pitched in the key of F, known as qin xiao 「琴簫」, which is narrower than an ordinary xiao. If one sings to qin songs (which is rare nowadays) then one should not sing in an operatic or folk style as is common in China, but rather in a very low pitched and deep way; and the range in which one should sing should not exceed one and a half octaves. The style of singing is similar to that used to recite Tang poetry. To enjoy qin songs, one must learn to become accustomed to the eccentric style some players may sing their songs to, like in the case of Zha Fuxi.

Traditionally, the qin was played in a quiet studio or room by oneself, or with a few friends; or played outdoors in places of outstanding natural beauty. Nowadays, many qin players perform at concerts in large concert halls, almost always, out of necessity, using electronic pickups or microphones to amplify the sound. Many qin players attend yajis, at which a number of qin players, music lovers, or anyone with an interest in Chinese culture can come along to discuss and play the qin. In fact, the yaji originated as a multi-media gathering involving the four arts: qin, chess, calligraphy, and painting.

[edit] Ritual use of the qin

Being an instrument of the scholars, the qin is also played in a ritual context, especially in yayue in China, and aak in Korea. The National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts of Munmyo jeryeak (Confucian ritual music) uses the last two surviving aak melodies from the importation of yayue from the Song Dynasty emperor Huizong in 1116 using the seul (se) and geum (guqin). In China, the qin was still in use in ritual ceremonies of the imperial court, such can be seen in the court paintings of imperial sacrifices of the Qing court (e.g. The Yongzheng Emperor Offering Sacrifices at the Altar of the God of Agriculture 《雍正祭先農壇圖》, 1723-35). [28]

[edit] Qin aesthetics

See also: Guqin aesthetics

When the qin is played, a number of aesthetic elements are involved. The first is musicality. In the second section of "Pingsha Luoyan", for example, the initial few bars contain a nao vibrato followed by a phase of sliding up and down the string, even when the sound has already become inaudible Listen carefully to the sliding sounds of Pingsha Luoyan (help·info). The average person trained in music may question whether this is really "music". Normally, some players would pluck the string very lightly to create a very quiet sound. For some players, this plucking isn't necessary. Instead of trying to force a sound out of the string one should allow the natural sounds emit from the strings. Some players say that the sliding on the string even when the sound has disappeared is a distinctive feature in qin music. It creates a "space" or "void" in a piece, playing without playing, sound without sound. In fact, when the viewer looks at the player sliding on the string without sounds, the viewer automatically "fills in the notes" with their minds. This creates a connection between player, instrument and listener. This, of course, cannot happen when listening to a recording, as one cannot see the performer. It can also be seen as impractical in recording, as the player would want to convey sound as much as possible towards a third audience. But in fact, there is sound, the sound coming from the fingers sliding on the string. With a really good qin, silk strings, and a perfectly quiet environment, all the tones can be sounded. And since the music is more player oriented than listener oriented, and the player knows the music, he/she can hear it even if the sound is not there. And with silk strings the sliding sound might be called the qi or "life force" of the music. The really empty sounds are the pauses between notes. However, if one cannot create a sound that can be heard when sliding on a string, it is generally acceptable to lightly pluck the string to create a very quiet sound. [29]

[edit] Guqin in popular culture

Xu Kuanghua playing an ancient qin in the film, Hero.
Xu Kuanghua playing an ancient qin in the film, Hero.
Main article: Guqin in popular culture

Being a symbol of high culture, the qin has inevitably been used as a prop in much of Chinese popular culture to varying degrees of accuracy. One can find references to the qin in a variety of media, most notably television serials and film. Mostly, the actors may not know how to play the instrument and mime it to a recorded piece by a qin player who may have recorded it specifically for the project. At other times, the music that is mimed to is guzheng music, rather than qin music. We also see the rather stereo-typical hybrids of qin and zheng pseudo-instruments of Kung Fu Hustle, to the more faithful and loving representation of the qin in Hero.

The qin is also used in older Chinese novels, such as Cao Xueqin's Dream of the Red Chamber and various others.

[edit] Related instruments

The Japanese ichigenkin 「一絃琴」, a monochord zither, is believed to be derived from the qin. The qin handbook Lixing Yuanya (【理性元雅】, 1618) includes some melodies for a one-string qin, and the Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu contains a picture and description of such an instrument. [30] The modern ichigenkin apparently first appeared in Japan just after that time. However, the honkyoku 〔本曲〕 (standard repertoire) of the ichigenkin today most closely resembles that of the shamisen 「三味線」.

The Korean komungo 「거문고」 may also be related, albeit distantly. Korean literati wanted to play an instrument the way their Chinese counterparts played the qin. For some reason they never took to the qin itself, instead playing the komungo, a long fretted zither plucked with a thin stick. The repertoire was largely the komungo parts for melodies played by the court orchestra. It should be noted that another ancient Chinese zither, the zhu 「筑」, was likely plucked with a stick, so the komungo may also be related to that instrument.

[edit] Media

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[edit] See also

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[edit] References

This article contains Chinese text.
Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.

In the writing and research of this article, a variety of sources have been used, whether primary or secondary.

Some of the books below are rare and not commercially available for public purchase, especially the older ones, which may be only accessible through certain libraries and academic institutions throughout the world (please check your country's national book records on old Chinese books to see what books they have and where), or privately held. Most of the modern prints and books are available through some of the websites listed below.

The external links are generally from sites that specialise in guqin, and are often hosted by knowledgeable and well respected qin players in the field with contacts to experts and professional players, therefore they are very reliable, especially those sites of qin societies and general qin sites which is a good point of research. For reasons of space and practicality, sites which only give a brief description or passing remark about the qin will not be included.

The Chinese characters are traditional or simplifed depending on the character set of the title in which the book was originally published in; or the main title of the site.

[edit] Bibilography and further reading

Look up guqin in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Chinese books on qin:

  • Zhou, Ningyun (1915). Qinshu Cunmu 【琴書存目】. [31]
  • Zha, Fuxi (1958). Cunjian Guqin Qupu Jilan 【存見古琴曲譜輯覽】. Beijing: The People's Music Press. ISBN 7-103-02379-4.
  • Xu, Jian (1982). Qinshi Chubian 【琴史初编】. Beijing: The People's Music Press. ISBN 7-103-02304-2.
  • Li, Xiangting (1992). Tangdai Guqin Yanzou Meixue ji Yinyue Sixiang Yanjiu 【唐代古琴演奏美學及音樂思想研究】. Taipei. [32]
  • Gong, Yi (1999). Guqin Yanzhoufa 【古琴演奏法】; 2nd ed., rev. inc. 2 CDs. Shanghai: Shanghai Educational Press. ISBN 7-5320-6621-5
  • Li, Mingzhong (2000). Zhongguo Qinxue 【中國琴學】 卷壹. Volume one. Shanxi: Shanxi Society Science Magazine Association.
  • Yin, Wei (2001). Zhongguo Qinshi Yanyi 【中国琴史演义】. Yunnan: People's Press of Yunnan. ISBN 7-222-03206-1/I‧866
  • Li, Xiangting (2004). Guqin Shiyong Jiaocheng 【古琴实用教程】. Shanghai: Shanghai Music Press. ISBN 7-80667-439-X
  • Wu, Na (2004). Guqin Chuji Jiaocheng 【古琴初级教程】. Beijing: Tongxin Press. ISBN 7-80593-835-0/J‧105
  • Huang, Datong (ed.) (2005). Chiba Guqin Kao 【尺八古琴考】. Shanghai: Shanghai Conservatory of Music Press. ISBN 7-80692-168-0/J‧161
  • Wu, Zhao (2005). Jueshi Qingyin 【绝世清音】; inc. 1 CD. Suzhou: Ancient Inn of Wu Press. ISBN 7-80574-908-6/G‧259
  • Yao, Bingyan and Huang, Shuzhi (2005). Tangdai Chen Zhuo Lun Guqin Zhifa: Yao Bingyan Qinxue Zhu Shu zhi Yi 【唐代陳拙論古琴指法‧姚丙炎琴學著述之一】. Beijing: Shu zhi Zhai Wenhua Co. Ltd. ISBN 988-98739-1-5.
Part of the Qinxue Congkan 【琴學叢刊】 ("collection of printings on qin study").
  • Yi, Cunguo (2005). Taiyin Xisheng 【太音希聲】. Guizhou: Zhejiang University Press. ISBN 7-308-04261-8/J‧093
  • Zhang, Huaying (2005). Gu Qin 【古琴】. Guizhou: Zhejiang People's Press. ISBN 7-213-02955-X
Part of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity Collection 【人类口头与非物质文化遗产丛书】.
  • Guo, Ping (2006). Guqin Congtan 【古琴丛谈】. Jinan: Shandong Book Press. ISBN 7-80713-209-4
  • Miao, Jianhua (2006). Guqin Meixue Sixiang Yanjiu 【古琴美学思想研究】. Shanghai: Shanghai Conservatory of Music Press. ISBN 7-80692-224-5
Part of the Series of Doctor Dissertations in Music 【音乐博士学位论文系列】.
  • Xian, Zhi (2006). Qi-xian Midao: Jingdian Guqin Gushi 【七弦味味道‧经典古琴故事】. Beijing: China Three Gorges Press. ISBN 7-80223-171-X
  • Xu, Junyue and Xiaoying (2006). Zhepai Guqin Yishu 【浙派古琴艺朮】. Shanghai: Shanghai Arts and Literature Press. ISBN 7-5321-3030-4

Qinpu:

  • Zhu, Quan (1425, 2001). Shenqi Mipu 【神竒秘譜】. Beijing: Cathay Bookshop. ISBN 7-80568-973-3/J‧284
  • Xu, Shangying (1673, 2005). Dahuan Ge Qinpu 【大還閣琴譜】. Beijing: Cathay Bookshop. ISBN 7-80663-288-3/J‧322
  • Zhou, Zi'an (1722, 2000). Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu 【五知齋琴譜】. Beijing: Cathay Bookshop. ISBN 7-80568-864-8/J‧237
  • Chu, Fengjie (1855). Yugu Zhai Qinpu 【與古齋琴譜】. Fujian: Private publication.
  • Zhang, He (1864, 1998). Qinxue Rumen 【琴學入門】. Beijing: Cathay Bookshop. ISBN 7-80568-865-6/J‧236
  • Yang, Zongji (1910-1931, 1996). Qinxue Congshu 【琴學叢書】. Beijing: Cathay Bookshop. ISBN 7-80568-552-5/I‧139
  • Wang, Binglu (1931, 2005). Mei'an Qinpu 【楳盦珡諩】. Beijing: China Bookstore. ISBN 7-80663-297-2/J‧331
  • Wu, Jinglüe and Wenguang (2001). Yushan Wushi Qinpu 【虞山吴氏琴谱】 The Qin Music Repertoire of the Wu Family. Beijing: Eastern Press. ISBN 7-5060-1454-8/I‧78
  • Gu, Meigeng (2004). Qinxue Beiyao (shougao ben) 【琴學備要（手稿本）】. Shanghai: Shanghai Music Press. ISBN 7-80667-453-5
See also: List of qinpu

Journals, newsletters and periodicals:

  • Zhongguo Huabao 【中國畫報】. July 1986.
  • Beijing Guqin Research Association. Beijing Qin-xun 【北京琴讯】. March 2001 (volume 71). [33]

English books on qin:

  • Gulik, Robert Hans van (1940, 1969). The Lore of the Chinese Lute. 2nd ed., rev. Rutland, Vt., and Tokyo: Charles Tuttle and Sophia University; Monumenta Nipponica. ISBN 0-8048-0869-4
  • Gulik, Robert Hans van (1941). Hsi K'ang and his Poetical Essay on the Chinese Lute. Tokyo: Monumenta Nipponica. ISBN 0-8048-0868-6
  • Liang, David Ming-Yueh (1972). The Chinese Ch'in Its History and Music. Chinese National Music Association / San Francico Conservatory of Music
  • Hsu, Wen-Ying (1978). The Ku'Chin. California: Wen Ying Studio, Pasadena
  • Lieberman, Fredric (1983). A Chinese Zither Tutor: The Mei-an Ch'in-p'u. Trans. and commentary. Washington and Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 0-295-95941-X
  • Binkley, James (2007). Abiding With Antiquity 【與古齋琴譜】. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1430303466

German books on qin:

  • Manfred Dahmer: “Qin - die klassische chinesische Griffbrettzither". With Audio-CD. Uelzen: ML-Verlag

Music books:

  • Sachs, Curth (1940). The History of Musical Instruments. New York: Norton & Co.
  • Lai, T. C. & Mok, Robert (1985). Jade Flute - the Story of Chinese Music. New York: Schocken Books. ISBN 0-8052-3961-8
  • Liang, David Ming-Yue (1985). Music of the Billion. New York: Heinrichshofen. ISBN 3-7959-0474-9
  • Herbet, Trevor (2001). Music in Words: A Guide to Researching and Writing about Music. London: The Associated Board of Royal Schools of Music. ISBN 1-86096-236-X

Non qin books (or books with a section on the qin):

  • Dr. L. Wieger, S. J. (1915, 1927, 1965). Chinese Characters: Their origin, etymology, history, classification and signification. A thorough study from Chinese documents. L. Davrout, S. J. (trans.). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-21321-8
  • Zhang Yushu et al. (1921). Kangxi Zidian 【康熙字典】. Shanghai: Shanghai Old Books Distribution Place.
  • Wang, Yunwu (1969). Wang Yunwu Da Cidian 【王雲五大辭典】. Hong Kong: Guanghua Book Department.
  • Herdan, Innes (trans.) (1973, 2000). 300 Tang Poems 【英譯唐詩三百首】, Yee Chiang (illus.). Taipei: The Far East Book Co., Ltd. ISBN 957-612-471-9
  • No author (1976, 1982). (Putonghua : Yueyin) Zhonghua Xin Zidian 【（普通話‧粵音）中華新字典】. Hong Kong: Chinese Book Department, Hong Kong Section. ISBN 962-231-001-X
  • Addiss, Stephen (1987). Tall Mountains and Flowing Waters. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1039-2
  • Yang, Xin; Barnhart, Richard M.; Nie, Chongzheng; Cahill, James; Lang, Shaojun and Wu, Hung (1997). Three Thousand Years of Chinese Painting. New Haven & London, Beijing: Yale University Press and Foreign Language Press. ISBN 0-300-09447-7
  • Temple, Robert (1998, 1999, 2002, 2005). The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention. Dr. Needham, Joseph FRS FBA (intro.). London: Prion. ISBN 1-85375-582-6
  • Liang, Jianmin (ed.) et al. (2000). Gu Hanyu Dacidian 【古汉语大词典】. Shanghai: Shanghai Cishu Press. ISBN 7-5326-0571-X
  • Rawski, E. Evelyn & Rawson, Jessica (ed.) (2005). CHINA: The Three Emperors 1662—1795. London: Royal Academy of Arts. ISBN 1-903973-69-4

[edit] External links

Qin society sites

General Qin sites

Sites dealing with qin notation and tablature

  • Qinqu Jicheng The near complete out-of-print PDF version of the Qinqu Jicheng download (vol. 10 missing) (Chinese)
  • Chinese Guqin and Notation Judy Chang's very detailed and well illustrated site explaining fingering techniques, including sections on structure, forms and various information
  • Jieshi Diao Youlan Manuscript View the original Tang Jieshi Diao Youlan manuscript kept at the National Museum in Japan here (Japanese)/(Chinese)/(Korean)/(English)/(French)
  • 'Qin' notation web generator Detailed and very interesting site on qin notation and a program to enter it

Other specialist Qin sites

Sites with a little information on Qin

  • UNESCO Proclamation of guqin as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity
  • Stephen Dydo's Site Has pictures of Stephen's qin construction as well as information of his other past-times besides qin

Sites with music samples and/or videos

More links are on the article's discussion page.

[edit] News articles/blog entries

Older news articles are on the article's discussion page.

[edit] Endnotes

  1. ↑  Li Ji: Quli, second half 【禮記‧曲禮下】.
  2. ↑  John Thompson on the Guqin Silk String Zither (2006) Confucius' entry in the Qin Shi (http://www.silkqin.com/09hist/qinshi/kongzi.htm, 07 January 2007)
  3. ↑  John Thompson on the Guqin Silk String Zither (2006) Shi Xiangzi's entry in the Qin Shi and the Shiji (http://www.silkqin.com/09hist/qinshi/shixiangzi.htm, 07 January 2007)
  4. ↑  Zhang Yushu et al.. Kangxi Zidian 【康熙字典】. Folio 28.
  5. ↑  John Thompson on the Guqin Silk String Zither (2005) Qin: Lute or Zither? (http://www.silkqin.com/11misc/lute.htm, 29 July 2006)
  6. ↑  Personal correspondance with John Thompson (27 October 2005).
    "Harmonic nodes used are those that divide the strings into 8 equal parts, 6 equal parts and 5 equal parts: 7+5+4=16 harmonic nodes. Those yielding 5/8 and 3/8 are not indicated, and 3/6 duplicates 4/8, leaving the 13 nodes indicated by the harmonic markers (hui). These 13 harmonic markers on each of the 7 strings mark the 91 positions in which harmonics are normally played. In early tablature I have occasionally found harmonics indicated between the markers (5/8 or 3/8), so if [one wants] to include these positions that increases the 91 to 105. A lot of these duplicate each other: i.e., harmonics at the 5th position give the same note as harmonics on the 9th position on the same string, so the number of harmonics is much less than the number of positions. Thus [it might be better to] write something like this for that last phrase: 'the 91 indicated harmonic positions allow great flexibility in playing melodies in harmonics'."
  7. ↑  John Thompson on the Guqin Silk String Zither (2005) New Qin Melodies (http://www.silkqin.com/06hear/sound/new.htm#f2, 29 July 2006)
  8. ↑  Yin, Wei. Zhongguo Qinshi Yanyi 【中国琴史演义】. Pages 1-10.
  9. ↑  Personal correspondance with John Thompson (27 October 2005).
    "The origins of the qin are unclear. The fact that no instruments in the shape of a modern qin have been found from the time of Confucius does not mean there weren't any: this could have been a style from the north, from which wood in tombs has not survived so easily. Also, Ji Kang lived the century after the Han ended; the dictionary pronunciation for his surname is Ji, but his family said they wanted it pronounced "Xi". According to Van Gulik, the earliest surviving qin is an early Tang dynasty one preserved in Japan. It is not playable, but others from the Tang seem to be so. It is highly debatable which is the most playable, so I would be careful about declaring this about any one in particular."
  10. ↑  United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2004) The Art of Guqin Music (http://www.unesco.org/culture/intangible-heritage/masterpiece.php?id=65&lg=en, 29 July 2006)
  11. ↑  Yang, Xin et al. (1997). Three Thousand Years of Chinese Painting. Page 122.
  12. ↑  Zhou, Zi'an. Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu 【五知齋琴譜】. Volume 1, folio 1, leaf <gold> 18-28.
  13. ↑  Personal correspondance with John Thompson (27 October 2005).
  14. ↑  Guqin Playing And Notation (2003) General Introduction (http://www.tcfb.com/guqin/notation1.html, 27 March 2007)
  15. ↑  Guo, Ping. Guqin Congtan 【古琴丛谈】. Page 112.
  16. ↑  Zhang, He. Qinxue Rumen 【琴學入門】. Volume 1, leaves 39, 40, 43 and 47.
  17. ↑  Zhu, Quan. Shenqi Mipu 【神竒秘譜】.
  18. ↑  Zha, Fuxi. Cunjian Guqin Qupu Jilan 【存見古琴曲譜輯覽】. Pages 3-44.
  19. ↑  North American Guqin Association (2002) Guqin Certification Program :list of approved pieces (http://www.chineseculture.net/guqin/newsletters/qinexamlist.pdf, 29 July 2006)
  20. ↑  Personal correspondance with John Thompson (27 October 2005).
    "When you start to write about dapu I think it is important to note that there are two attitudes towards it, that it can be used as a basis to create new music, and that it can be used to reconstruct the way the music originally was played."
  21. ↑  John Thompson on the Guqin Silk String Zither (2004) Dapu: Bringing old music to life (http://www.silkqin.com/08anal/dapu.htm, 29 July 2006)
  22. ↑  A more detailed analysis can be found here: <http://www.silkqin.com/08anal/rhtm.htm>
  23. ↑  Gong, Yi. Guqin Yanzhoufa 【古琴演奏法】. Page 11 and 13.
  24. ↑  Personal correspondance with John Thompson (27 October 2005).
    "[This] method may be better than the metal pegs for silk strings, but it is still harder on the strings than the traditional method. It is also, in my opinion, much more difficult to control. If [one has] used such pegs (I used to play violin) [one would] know how difficult it is to be precise, because it is a direct method in which the slightest movement causes a noticeable change. With the traditional indirect method the peg twists a cord which tightens the string much more slowly, giving you more control. In fact such devises are only needed with metal strings: if with practice [one isn't] strong enough to tighten the silk strings, then [one is] probably trying to tighten them too much."
  25. ↑  Li, Xiangting. Guqin Shiyong Jiaocheng 【古琴实用教程】. Page 105.
  26. ↑  Peronal correspondance with John Thmpson (27 October 2005).
    "Today in China some people are arguing that the first string should be tuned to C (thus in standard tuning the 5th string is A), but there is no historical basis for this. [...] "tuned up to the standard pitch (5th string at A) without breaking" is misleading. There was no standard pitch for traditional qin music; if there was for Chinese music in general, this would change, as it has in the West. Today standard A may be 440 vib/sec but in the Baroque period it was a half or whole tone lower."
  27. ↑  Lieberman, Fredric. A Chinese Zither Tutor: The Mei-an Ch'in-p'u. Pages 29-34.
  28. ↑  Rawski, E. Evelyn & Rawson, Jessica (ed.). CHINA: The Three Emperors 1662—1795. Pages 117, 126 and 127.
  29. ↑  London Youlan Qin Society (2004) Yaji 5th September 2004 (http://www.ukchinesemusic.com/londonyoulanqin/yaji_20040905.htm, 29 July 2006)
  30. ↑  Zhou, Zi'an. Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu 【五知齋琴譜】. Volume 1, folio 2, leaf 10.
  31. ↑  John Thompson on the Guqin Silk String Zither (2004) Annoted Catalogue of Qin Books (http://www.silkqin.com/02qnpu/qscm.htm, 03 November 2006)
  32. ↑  North American Guqin Association (2004) 唐代古琴演奏美学及音乐思想研究 (http://www.chineseculture.net/guqin/newsletters/lixiangtingtangbookfullversion_files/lixiangtingtangbookfullversion.htm, 29 July 2006)
  33. ↑  North American Guqin Association (2001) 北京琴讯 (http://www.chineseculture.net/guqin/newsletters/0301.pdf, 29 July 2006)
Guqin
古琴
Aesthetics | Construction | Contemprary players | History | Literature | Notation | Playing technique | Popular culture | Qinpu | Schools
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Traditional Chinese musical instruments
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