Ganesha

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Ganesha (Gaņeśa)
Ganesha
Ganesha
God of Obstacles
Devanagari: गणेश
Sanskrit Transliteration: gaṇeśa
Affiliation: Deva
Consort: Riddhi (prosperity),
Siddhi (perfection),
Buddhi (wisdom)
Mount: mouse

In Hinduism, Ganesha is one of the best known and beloved representations of God. As the lord of beginnings and eliminator of obstacles, he is said to be the most worshipped divinity in India.[1] Traditionally he is honored with affection at the start of any ritual or ceremony, even by devotees of other Hindu deities. Whether it is divali puja, a new vehicle, students praying before exams, beginning a business venture, sessions of bhajan (devotional chanting), or taking a trip, it is Ganesha they pray to. Throughout India and the Hindu culture, Ganesha is the first icon placed into any new home or abode.

It is widely believed that "Wherever there is Ganesha, there is Success and Prosperity" and "Wherever there is Success and Prosperity there is Ganesha". He is the Lord of Obstacles both of a material and spiritual order.[2] He is capable of placing obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked, and can remove blockages just as easily. By calling on him people believe that he will come to their aid and grant them success in their endeavours. He also is considered the god of intellect and wisdom.[3] As the "Patron of Letters" he is invoked at the beginning of any writing.[4]

The popularity of the devotional cult of Ganesha is widely diffused, even outside of India.[5][6]

Some of his devotees identify Ganesha as the Supreme deity and are called the Ganapatya (Sanskrit:गाणपत्य; gāņapatya).[7][8] Their principal scriptures are the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana, and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa, all of which identify Ganesha as the Supreme embodiment of Brahman.

While he is popularly considered to be the eldest son of Shiva and Parvati, in Puranic myths there are several different versions of his birth.[9][10] In some stories he was created by Shiva alone (Linga Purana), by Parvati alone (Shiva Purana IV. 17.47-57; Matsya Purana 154.547), by Shiva and Parvati together (Varāha Purana 23.18-59), or in a mysterious manner that is discovered by Shiva and Parvati (Brahmavaivarta Purana, Ganesha Khanda, 10.8-37).

He is called by many other names, including Ganapati. The Hindu title of respect 'Shri' (Sanskrit:श्री; śrī, also spelled Sri or Shree) is often added before his name.

Contents

[edit] Etymology and other names

The name Ganesha (Sanskrit:गणेश; gaņeśa; listen (help·info)) (also spelled as Ganesa; Hindi Ganesh) is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana (Sanskrit:गण; gaṇa) meaning a group, multitude, or categorical system + isha (Sanskrit:ईश; īśa) meaning lord or master.[11][12] The word gana in association with Gaņeśa is often taken to refer to the gaņas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of Lord Śiva's retinue.[13] The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation.[12] So some commentators interpret the name "Lord of the Gaņas" to mean "Lord of created categories" such as the elements, etc.[14] The translation "Lord of Hosts" may convey a familiar sense to Western readers. The name Ganapati (Sanskrit:गणपति; gaṇapati) is a synonym, being a compound composed of गण + पति (pati, ruler or lord).[12]

Like other devas (Hindu male deities) and devis (female deities), Ganesha has many other titles of respect or symbolic names, and is often worshipped through the chanting of the Ganesha Sahasranama, which literally means "a thousand names of Ganesha". The Ganesha Sahasranama is part of the Ganesha Purana, a Hindu scripture that venerates Ganesha. Each name in the sahasranama conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha.

The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras.[15] This name is reflected in the naming of the famous eight Ganesha (aṣṭavināyaka) temples in Maharashtra.

The name Vignesha ("Lord of Obstacles") refers to his primary function in Hindu mythology as being able to both create and remove obstacles (vighna).

The Tamil name for Ganesha is Pillaiyar. According to A. K. Narain, in the Dravidian family of languages pallu, pella, and pell signify "tooth or tusk of an elephant" but more generally "elephant", and in Tamil country pille means a "child" and pillaiyar a "noble child".[16] In discussing the name Pillaiyar Thapan notes that since the Pali word pillaka has the significance of "a young elephant" it is possible that pille originally meant the young of the elephant.[17]

[edit] Iconography

Ganesha figures show wide variation with distinct patterns changing over time.[18][19][20]

This statue of Ganesha was created in the Mysore District of Karnataka in the 13th century.
This statue of Ganesha was created in the Mysore District of Karnataka in the 13th century.

The figure shown to the right is typical of Ganesha statuary from the early medieval period, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own cult. A virtually identical statue has been dated as (973-1200) by Martin-Dubost.[21] It shows some of his most universal iconographic elements. He has the head of an elephant, a big belly, and carries some form of tasty delicacy in his left hand which he samples with his trunk. The statue has four arms. The right upper arm holds an axe, while the left upper arm holds a noose, symbols of his ability to cut through obstacles or to create them as needed.

The number of arms and what each hand carries has symbolic meaning, there being a large number of symbols in all. The best-known forms of Ganesha have anywhere between two and sixteen arms.[22] Lesser-known forms with fourteen and twenty arms appeared in Central India in the 9th and 10th century.[23] In modern depictions of Ganesha, it is most common to see him with four arms.

He may be represented standing, dancing, as a warrior in heroic action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down, or in a remarkable range of contemporary situations when depicted in festival displays.

The colors associated with Ganesha are most often red and yellow, but specific forms have other colors.[24]

Common attributes

  • He has the head of an elephant.
  • He has a single tusk, the other being broken off. The earliest Sanskrit name that we know of that was used to refer to Ganesha is Ekadanta (One Tusk), referring to this distinctive attribute.[25] Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk.[26] The name of Ganesha's second incarnation is Ekadanta according to the Mudgala Purana.[27]
  • His has a pot belly. The protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in the earliest Ganesha statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries AD).[28] The Brahmanda Purana says that he has the name Lambodara because all the universes (cosmic eggs, brahmāṇḍas) of the past, present, and future are in Gaṇeśa.[29][30] The name of Ganesha's fifth incarnation is Lambodara ("Pot Belly") according to the Mudgala Purana.[31]
  • A hand turned towards the devotee is often in the gesture of protection or "no fear" (abhaya mudra).[32]
  • He is often shown riding on, or attended by, a mouse.[33]
Ganesha riding on his mouse. Note the flowers offered by the devotees. A sculpture at the Vaidyeshwara temple at Talakkadu, Karnataka, India
Ganesha riding on his mouse. Note the flowers offered by the devotees. A sculpture at the Vaidyeshwara temple at Talakkadu, Karnataka, India

[edit] Worship and Festivals

The worship of Ganesha is considered complementary with the worship of other deities.[34] Hindus of all sects begin prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies with an invocation of Ganesha. Mantras such as Om Shri Ganeshāya Namah ("Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha"), and others, are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is Om Gaṃ Ganapataye Namah (literally, "Om, Gaṃ, Salutation to the Lord of Hosts").

Celebrations of Ganesh by the Indian and Sri Lankan Tamil community in Paris, France
Celebrations of Ganesh by the Indian and Sri Lankan Tamil community in Paris, France

Ganesh Chaturthi

In India, there is an important festival honouring Ganesha that is celebrated for ten days starting from Ganesh Chaturthi. This festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi when the murti of Ganesha is immersed into the most convenient body of water.

The Ganapati festival is celebrated by Hindus throughout India with great devotional fervour. While it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra, it is performed all over India.[35] In Mumbai, India's most populated city, the festival assumes huge proportions. On the last day of the festival, millions of people of all ages descend onto the streets leading up to the sea, dancing and singing, to the rhythmic accompaniment of drums and cymbals.

[edit] Association with Aum

Om or Aum
Ganesha Aum jewel
Ganesha Aum jewel

Ganesha is identified with the Hindu mantra Aum (ॐ, also called Om, Omkara, oṃkāra, or Aumkara). The term oṃkārasvarūpa ("Aum is his form") in connection with Ganesha refers to this belief that he is the personification of the primal sound.[36]

This association is attested in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. The relevant passage is translated by Courtright as follows:

You are Brahmā, Vişņu, and Rudra [Śiva]. You are Agni, Vāyu, and Sūrya. Your are Candrama. You are earth, space, and heaven. Yor are the manifestation of the mantra "Oṃ".[37]

A variant version of this passage is translated by Chinmayananda as follows:

(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trinity) Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa. You are Indra. You are fire and air. You are the sun and the moon. You are Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka, Antariksha-loka, and Swargaloka. You are Om. (that is to say, You are all this).[38]

Some devotees see similarities between the shape of his body and the shape of Om in the Devanāgarī and Tamil scrips.[39]

[edit] Association with first chakra

Ganesha is associated with the first chakra. This association is attested in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. As translated by Courtright this passage reads:

You continually dwell in the sacral plexus at the base of the spine [mūlādhāra cakra].[40]

A variant version of this passage is translated by Chinmayananda as follows:

You have a permanent abode (in every being) at the place called "Muladhara".[41]

[edit] Married or celibate?

The issue of Ganesha's marital status and/or celibacy has been the subject of considerable scholarly review, and shows much variation.[42] Four patterns of groupings of relationships are identifiable. The first pattern identifies Ganesha as never having married. The second pattern involves one or more of the following three concepts, which are sometimes personified as goddesses: Buddhi (intellect), Siddhi (spiritual power), and Riddhi (prosperity). All three of these concepts are associated with Ganesha, but they are not always personified as wives. A third pattern involves the goddesses Sarasvati (goddess of culture and art) and Lakshmi (goddess of luck and prosperity). A fourth pattern links Ganesha with the banana tree. Some of the differences between these patterns can be understood by looking at regional variations across India. Some differences relate to the time period in which the pattern is found. Some differences relate to the tradition in which the patterns are found, with Tantric texts being more likely to personify energies or potencies (Sanskrit:शक्ति; śakti, also spelled shakti) associated with Ganesha as feminine figures. Finally, some differences pertain to the preferred meditation form used by the devotee, with many different traditional forms ranging from Ganesha as a young boy (Sanskrit:बालगणपति; bālagāņapati) to Ganesha as a Tantric deity (Sanskrit:उच्छिष्टगणपति; ucchişţagāņapati).[43][44]

[edit] Unmarried

According to tradition, Ganesha was a brahmacharin (brahmacārin), that is, unmarried.[45] This tradition was linked to Hindu concepts of the relationship between celibacy and the development of spiritual power.[46]

Bhaskaraya alludes to the tradition in which Ganesha was considered to be a lifelong bachelor in his commentary on the Ganesha Purana version of the Ganesha Sahasranama, which includes the name Abhīru (verse 9a).[47] In his commentary on this verse Bhaskaraya says the name Abhīru means "without a woman", but the term can also mean "not fearful".[48] Another allusion to bachelorhood appears in the name Sadyojātasvarṇamuñjamekhalī (Wearing a girdle of fresh, golden-colored muñja-grass, verse 18a).[49] That type of girdle was worn by brahmacharins as a sign of being unmarried.

[edit] Buddhi, Siddhi, and Riddhi as "wives"

Ganesha with the Ashta (8) Siddhi. The Ashtasiddhi are associated with Ganesha. - painting by Raja Ravi Varma (1848-1906)
Ganesha with the Ashta (8) Siddhi. The Ashtasiddhi are associated with Ganesha. - painting by Raja Ravi Varma (1848-1906)

In the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana there are descriptions of him flanked by Siddhi and Buddhi.[50] In these two Puranas they appear as an intrinsic part of Ganapati[51] and according to Thapan[52] do not require any special rituals associated with shakti worship. In chapter I.18.24-39 of the Ganesha Purana, Brahmā performs worship in honor of Ganesha, and during it Ganesha himself causes Buddhi and Siddhi to appear so that Brahmā can offer them back to Ganesha. Ganesha accepts them as offerings.[53] In Ganesha Purana I.65.10-12 there is a variant of this incident, in which various gods are giving presents to Ganesha, but in this case Siddhi and Buddhi are born from Brahmā's mind and are given by Brahmā to Ganesha.[53]

The best known Puranic source identifying Buddhi and Siddhi as his two consorts appears in the Shiva Purana (Śiva Purāṇa). In that version, Ganesha and his brother Skanda compete for the right to marry the two desirable daugters of Prajāpati, Siddhi and Buddhi, and Ganesha wins through a clever approach.[54] This story adds that after some time Ganesha begat two sons: Kshema (Kşema) (Prosperity), born to Siddhi, and Lâbha (Acquisition, Profit) born to Buddhi. In Northern Indian variants of this story the sons are often said to be Śubha (Shubh) (auspiciousness) and Lābha.

In discussing the Shiva Purana story Courtright comments that while iconographically Ganesha is sometimes depicted as sitting between these two feminine deities, "these women are more like feminine emanations of his androgynous nature, Shaktis rather than spouses having their own characters and spouses."[55] Ludo Rocher says that "descriptions of Gaṇeśa as siddhi-buddhi-samanvita 'accompanied by, followed by siddhi and buddhi.' often seem to mean no more than that, when Gaṇeśa is present, siddhi 'success' and buddhi 'wisdom' are not far behind. Such may well have been the original conception, of which the marriage was a later development."[56]

The Ganesha Temple at Morgaon is the central shrine for the regional aṣṭavināyaka complex. The most sacred area within the Moragaon temple is the "womb-house" (garbhagŗha), a small enclosure containing an image of Ganesha. To the right and left sides of the image stand Siddhi and Buddhi.[57]

In northern India the two female figures are said to be Siddhi and Riddhi; Riddhi substitutes for Buddhi with no Puranic basis.[58] In verse 49a of the Ganesha Purana version of the Ganesha Sahasranama one of Ganesha's names is Ŗddhisiddhipravardhana "Enhancer of material and spiritual success", using riddhi and siddhi as abstract nouns. In the Matsya Purana Gaṇesha is identified as the "owner" of riddhi (prosperity) and buddhi.[59] In discussing the northern Indian sources Cohen says that:

"They are depersonalized figures, interchangeable, and given their frequent depiction fanning Gaṇeśa are often referred to as dasīs -- servants. Their names represent the benefits accrued by the worshipper of Gaṇeśa, and thus Gaṇeśa is said to be the owner of Ṛddhi and Siddhi; he similarly functions as the father of Śubha (auspiciousness) and Lābha (profit), a pair similar to the Śiva Purāṇa's Kṣema (prosperity) and Lābha. Though in Varanasi the paired figures were usually called Ṛddhi and Siddhi, Gaṇeśa's relationship to them was often vague. He was their mālik, their owner; they were more often dasīs than patnīs (wives)."[60]

His relationship with the Ashtasiddhi (the eight spiritual attaintments obtained by the practice of yoga) is also of this type. In later iconography these eight marvellous powers are represented by a group of young girls who surround Ganesha.[61] A painting by Raja Ravi Varma (1848-1906) shown to the right illustrates a recent example of this iconographic form, including the fans which establish the feminine figures as attendants.

In the Ajitāgama, a Tantric form of Ganesha called Haridra Ganapati is described as turmeric-colored and flanked by two unnamed wives.[62] The word "wives" (Sanskrit:दारा; dārā) is specifically used (Sanskrit:दारायुगलम्; dārāyugalam).[63] These wives are distinct from shaktis.

[edit] Buddhi (Wisdom)

Ganesha in Bangalore
Ganesha in Bangalore

Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of Intelligence.[64] In Sanskrit the word buddhi is a feminine noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect.[65] The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha as of the Puranic period, where many stories develop that showcase his cleverness and love of intelligence.

One of Ganesha's names in the Ganesha Purana and in the Ganesha Sahasranama is Buddhipriya.[66] The name Buddhipriya also appears in a special list of twenty-one names that Gaṇeśa says are of special importance at the end of the Ganesha Sahasranama.[67] The word priya can mean "fond of" or in a marital context it can mean "a lover, husband". Where it appears alone the name Buddhipriya probably refers to Ganesha's well-known association with intelligence.

This association with wisdom also appears in the name Buddha, which appears as a name of Ganesha in the second verse of the Ganesha Purana version of the Ganesha Sahasranama.[68] The positioning of this name at the beginning of the Ganesha Sahasranama indicates that the name was of importance. Bhaskararaya's commentary on the Ganesha Sahasranama says that this name for Ganesha means that the Buddha was an avatar of Ganesha.[69] This interpretation is not widely known even among Ganapatya, and the Buddha is not mentioned in the lists of Ganesha's incarnations given in the main sections of the Ganesha Purana and Mudgala Purana. Bhaskararaya also provides a more general interpretation of this name as simply meaning that Ganesha's very form is "eternal elightenment" (nityabuddaḥ), so he is named Buddha.

[edit] The motif of a single shakti

A distinct iconographic type of Ganesha image shows him with a single human-looking shakti (śakti).[70] According to Ananda Coomaraswamy the oldest known depiction of Ganesha with a shakti of this type dates from the sixth century AD.[71] The consort lacks a distinctive personality or iconographic repertoire. According to Cohen and Getty, the appearance of this shakti motif parallels the emergence of tantric branches of the Ganapatya cult. Six distinct forms of "Shakti Ganapati" can be linked to the Ganapatyas.[72] Of the thirty-two standard meditation forms for Ganesha that appear in the Sritattvanidhi (Śrītattvanidhi), six include a shakti.[73]

A common form of this motif shows Ganesha seated with the shakti upon his left hip, holding a bowl of flat cakes or round sweets. Ganesha turns his trunk to his own left to touch the tasty food. In some of the tantric forms of this image the gesture is modified to take on erotic overtones.[74] Some tantric variants of this form are described in the Śāradātilaka Tantram.[75]

Agrawala has traced at least six different lists of fifty or more aspects or forms of Ganesha each with their specific female consorts or shaktis.[76][77] In these lists of paired shaktis are found such goddess names as Hrī, Śrī, Puṣṭī, etc. The names Buddhi, Siddhi, and Riddhi do not appear on any of these lists. The lists provide no details about the personalities or distinguishing iconographic forms for these shaktis. Agrawala concludes that all of the lists were derived from one original set of names. The earliest of the lists occurs in the Nārada Purāṇa (I.66.124-38), and appears to have been used with minor variations in the Ucchiṣṭagaṇapati Upāsanā. These lists are of two types. In the first type the names of various forms of Ganesha are given with a clear-cut pairing of a named shakti for that form. In the second type, as found in the Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa (II.IV.44.63-76) and the commentary of Rāghavabhaṭṭa on the Śāradātilaka (I.115), fifty or more names of Ganesha are given collectively in one group, with the names of the shaktis given collectively in a second group. The second type of list poses some problems in separating and properly connecting the names into pairs due to ambiguities in the formation of Sanskrit compound words.

[edit] Sarasvati and Lakshmi

Popularly in north India Ganesha is accompanied by Sarasvati (goddess of culture and art) and Lakshmi (goddess of luck and prosperity), symbolizing that these qualities always accompany he who has discovered his own internal divinity. Symbolically this represents the fact that wealth, prosperity and success accompany those who have the qualities wisdom, prudence, patience, etc. that Ganesha symbolises.

[edit] Kala Bo

Statue of Ganesha with a flower
Statue of Ganesha with a flower

In Bengal, Ganesha on Durga Puja is associated with a banana (plantain) tree, the "Kala Bo"[78] (also spelled Kalabou or Kolābau), ritually transformed into a goddess during the festival.[42] Martin-Dubost defines the Kala Bo (Kolābau) as "the banana tree goddess .... worshipped every year in the villages of Bengal, during the great Durga festival in September-October. Martin-Dubost says that the etymology of the name Kolābau is from kolā (banana) + bau (young bride).[79]

On the first day of Durga Puja the Kala Bo is taken for a bath to the Holy Ganges. After a bathing ceremony she is draped with a red-bordered white sari and vermilion is smeared on its leaves. She is then placed on a decorated pedestal and worshipped with flowers, sandalwood paste, and incense sticks. The Kala Bo is set on Ganesha's right side, along with other other deities. For most who view her, the new sari indicates her role as a new bride, and many Bengalis see it as symbolizing the wife of Ganesha.

A different view is that the Kala Bo represents Durga herself, who in Bengal is considered the mother of Ganesha. Those who know of that tradition do not consider Ganesha's association with Kala Bo as a marital one. Haridas Mitra says that the Kala Bo is intended to serve as a symbolic summary for the nine types of leaves (nava patrika) that together form a sacred complex on Durga Puja.[80] The officiating priests who carry out the ceremony tie a bunch of eight plants on the trunk of the plantain tree and it is the grouping of all nine plants that constitute the Kala Bo.[81] The nine plants all have beneficial medicinal properties. According to Martin-Dubost, the Kala Bo does not represent a bride or shakti of Ganesha, but rather is the plant form of Durga. He connects the plant symbol back to the festival enactment of Durga's return of the blood of the buffalo demon to the earth so that the order of the world may be re-established and luxuriant vegetation reappear. He links Ganesha to to this vegetation myth and notes that Astadasausadhisristi (Aṣṭādaśauṣadhisṛṣṭi, "Creator of the eighteen medicinal plants") is a name of Ganesha.[82]

[edit] Santoshī Mā

Ganesha has been depicted as a householder married to Riddhi and Siddhi and the father of Santoshī Mā, a new goddess of satisfaction, in the 1975 Hindi film Jai Santoshi Maa. The movie script is not based on scriptural sources. The fact that a cult has developed around the figure of Santoshi Mata has been cited by Thapan and Cohen as evidence of Ganesha's continuing evolution as a popular deity.[83][84]

[edit] Ganesha's rise to prominence

Image of Pune city god Shree Dagdusheth Halwai Ganpati
Image of Pune city god Shree Dagdusheth Halwai Ganpati

Ganesha appears in his classic form as a distinct deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in clearly-recognizable form beginning in the fourth to fifth centuries AD.[85] Nagar says that the earliest cult image of Ganesha so far known is is found in the niche of the Shiva temple at Bhumra, which has been dated to the Gupta period.[86] By about the tenth century AD his independent cult had come into existence.[87]

Narain sums up controversy between devotees and academics regarding the development of Ganesha as follows:

"[W]hat is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaņeśa on the historical scene. His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and territorial limits, are indeed amazing. On the one hand there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaņeśa's Vedic origins and in the Purāṇic explanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon of this deity" before the fourth to fifth century A.D.... [I]n my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence or the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century."[88]

Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way:

In this search for a historical origin for Gaņeśa, some have suggested precise locations outside the Brāhmaṇic tradition.... These historical locations are intriguing to be sure, but the fact remains that they are all speculations, variations on the Dravidian hypothesis, which argues that anything not attested to in the Vedic and Indo-European sources must have come into Brāhmaṇic religion from the Dravidian or aboriginal populations of India as part of the process that produced Hinduism out of the interactions of the Aryan and non-Aryan populations. There is no independent evidence for an elephant cult or a totem; nor is there any archaeological data pointing to a tradition prior to what we can already see in place in the Purāṇic literature and the iconography of Gaņeśsa."[89]

Thapan's book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India, but concludes that:

Although by the second century AD the elephant-headed yakṣa form exists it cannot be presumed to represent Gaṇapati-Vināyaka. There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage. Gaṇapati-Vināyaka had yet to make his debut.[90]

The title "Leader of the group" (Sanskrit gaṇapati) occurs twice in the Rig Veda but in neither case does it refer to Ganesha as we know him today. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title for Brahmanaspati, the teacher of the gods. H. H. Wilson translates the Sanskrit verse "gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇapatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnāmupamaśravastamam" (RV 2.23.1 [2222]) as "We invoke the Brahmaṇaspati, chief leader of the (heavenly) bands; a sage of sages".[91] While there is no doubt that this verse refers to Brahmanaspati, the verse was later adopted for use in worship of Ganesha even to this day.[92][93] In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in the Rig Veda Ludo Rocher says that it "clearly refers to Bṛhaspati - who is the devatā of the hymn - and Bṛhaspati only."[94]

The second passage (RV 10.112.9) equally clearly refers to Indra.[95] H. H. Wilson translates the Sanskrit verse "ni ṣu sīda gaṇapate gaṇeṣu tvāmāhurvipratamaṃ kavīnām" as "Lord of the companies (of the Maruts), sit down among the companies (of the worshippers), they call you the most sage of sages".[96]

Ganesha does not appear in literature of the Epic Period, but there is a late interpolation to the epic poem Mahabharata, where it is written that the sage Vyasa (Vyāsa) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed, but only on the condition that Vyasa recite the poem uninterrupted, without pausing. The sage agreed to this condition, but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages in order to get Ganesha to ask for clarifications. This is the single passage in which Ganesha appears in that epic. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the Mahabharata,[97] where the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote to an appendix.[98] Ganesha's association with mental agility and learning is probably one reason he is shown as scribe for Vyasa's dictation of the Mahabharata in this interpolation to the text.[99] Brown dates the story as 8th century AD, and Winternitz concludes that it was known as early as c. 900 AD but he maintains that it had not yet been added to the Mahabharata some 150 years later. Winternitz also drew attention to the fact that a distinctive feature of Southern manuscripts of the Mahabharata is their omission of this Ganesha legend.[100]

It is in the Puranic corpus where Ganesha stories occur often. In his survey of Ganesha's rise to prominence in Sanskrit literature Ludo Rocher notes that:

"Above all, one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surrounding Gaṇeśa concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents. These incidents are mainly three: his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk. Other incidents are touched on in the texts, but to a far lesser extent."[101]

Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he came to acquire an elephant's head are to be found in the later Puranas composed from about 600 AD onwards, and that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, are considered to be later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th centuries AD.[102]

One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four Vināyakas.[103][104] In Hindu mythology the Vināyakas were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties,[105] but who were easily propitiated.[106] The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras.[107] Vuvraj Krishan is one of the academics who accepts this view, stating flatly of Ganesha that "He is a non-vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of the Mānavagŗhyasūtra (7th-4th century B.C.) who cause various types of evil and suffering."[108]

Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century AD when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartism. The "worship of the five forms" (pañcāyatana pūjā) system, which was popularized by the ninth-century philosopher Śaṅkarācārya among orthodox Brahmins of the Smārta tradition, invokes the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devī, and Sūrya.[109][110] It was instituted by Śaṅkarācārya primarily to unite the principal deities of the five major sects (Gāṇapatya, Śaiva, Vaiṣṇava, and Sūrya) on an equal status. This formalized the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity. The monistic philosophy preached by Śaṅkarācārya made it possible to choose one of these as a preferred principal deity and at the same time worship the other four deities as different forms of the same all-pervading Brahman. Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities of Brahmanism, some brāhmaṇas chose to worship Ganesha as their principal deity, developing the Ganapatya tradition reflected in the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana.[111]

[edit] References

  1. ^ Robert L. Brown. "Introduction" in: Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God. (State University of New York Press: Albany, 1991), p. 1. ISBN 0-7914-0657-1
  2. ^ Paul B. Courtright. Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. (Oxford University Press: New York, 1985). ISBN 0-19-505742-2
  3. ^ Heras, op. cit., p. 58
  4. ^ Getty, op. cit., p. 5.
  5. ^ For a review of Ganesha's geographic spread and popularity outside of India see: Nagar, Shanti Lal. The Cult of Vinayaka. (Intellectual Publishing House: New Delhi, 1992). ISBN 81-7076-043-9.
  6. ^ For discussion of the spread of Ganesha worship to Nepal, Chinese Turkestan, Tibet, Burma, Siam, Indo-China, Java, Bali, Borneo, China, and Japan see pp.37-88 in Alice Getty, Gaņeśa: A Monograph on the Elephant-Faced God, (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1936). 1992 reprint edition, ISBN 81-215-0377-X
  7. ^ Ganapatya. britannica.com. Retrieved on 2006-09-27.
  8. ^ For history of the development of the gāņapatya and their relationship to the wide geographic dispersion of Ganesha worship see: Thapan, Anita Raina. Understanding Gaņapati: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult. (Manohar Publishers: New Delhi, 1997). ISBN 81-7304-195-4.
  9. ^ For a summary of Puranic variants of birth stories see Shanti Lal Nagar, op. cit., pp. 7-14.
  10. ^ Paul Martin-Dubost, op. cit., chapter 2, ""Stories of Birth According to the Purāṇas".
  11. ^ Narain, A. K. "Gaṇeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon" pp. 21-22 in: Brown, Robert L. Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God (State University of New York: Albany 1991). ISBN 0-7914-0657-1
  12. ^ a b c Apte, A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, p. 395.
  13. ^ Paul Martin-Dubost. Gaņeśa: The Enchanter of the Three Worlds. (Project for Indian Cultural Studies: Mumbai, 1997). Cf. p. 2 for derivation of the name and relationship with the gaņas. ISBN 81-900184-3-4
  14. ^ The word gaṇa is interpreted in this metaphysical sense by Bhāskararāya in his commentary on the gaṇeśasahasranāma. See: Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta ‘khadyota’ vārtika sahita. (Prācya Prakāśana: Vārāṇasī, 1991). Source text with a commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit. See in particular commentary on verse 6 including names Gaṇeśvaraḥ and Gaṇakrīḍaḥ.
  15. ^ Thapan, op. cit., p. 20.
  16. ^ A. K. Narain. p. 25. "Gaṇeśa: The Idea and the Icon" in: Robert L. Brown, editor, Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God, op. cit.
  17. ^ Thapan, op. cit., p. 62
  18. ^ For a comprehensive review of iconography abundantly illustrate with pictures see: Martin-Dubost, Paul. op. cit.
  19. ^ For a survey of iconography with emphasis on developmental themes, well-illustrated with plates, see: Krishan, Yuvraj. op. cit., particularly chapter X, "Development of the Iconography of Gaņeśa."
  20. ^ For a richly illustrated collection of studies on specific aspects of Ganesha with a focus on art and iconography see: Pal, Pratapaditya, op. cit.
  21. ^ Martin-Dubost, op. cit., p. 213, upper right, where it is dated as (973-1200).
  22. ^ For an inconographical chart showing number of arms and attributes classified by source and named form see: Shanti Lal Nagar, Cult of Vinayaka, Appendix I, pp. 191-195. () (D. R. Chopra, Intellectual Publishing House: New Delhi, 1992). ISBN 81-7076-043-9
  23. ^ Martin-Dubost, op. cit., p. 120.
  24. ^ See: "The Colors of Ganesha", pp. 221-230, in: Martin-Dubost, op. cit.
  25. ^ Getty, Alice. op. cit., p. 1.
  26. ^ Heras, H. op. cit., p. 29.
  27. ^ Phyllis Granoff, "Gaṇeśa as Metaphor," in: Robert L. Brown (ed.) Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God, p. 90.
  28. ^ Nagar, Shanti Lal. "Ganesha in Indian Plastic Art", p. 101 and passim in: Nagar, Cult of Vinayaka (op. cit.)
  29. ^ Br. P. 2.3.42.34
  30. ^ Thapan, op. cit., p. 200, describes how a variant of this story is used in the Mudgala Purana 2.56.38-9.
  31. ^ Phyllis Granoff, "Gaṇeśa as Metaphor," in: Robert L. Brown (ed.) Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God, p. 91.
  32. ^ Martin-Dubost, op. cit., pp. 197-98.
  33. ^ Shanti Lal Nagar, op. cit., Preface.
  34. ^ Courtright, op. cit., p. 163.
  35. ^ Courtright, op. cit., pp. 202-247, "Gaṇeśa in a Regional Setting."
  36. ^ Grimes, op. cit., p. 77.
  37. ^ Translation by Courtright, op. cit., p. 253
  38. ^ Chinmayananda, op. cit., p. 127. In Chinmayananda's numbering system this is upamantra 8.
  39. ^ Grimes, op. cit., pp. 79-80, has examples of both.
  40. ^ Translation by Courtright, op. cit., p. 253
  41. ^ Chinmayananda, op. cit., p. 127. In Chinmayananda's numbering system this is part of upamantra 7.
  42. ^ a b For a review see: Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of Gaṇeśa", pp. 115-140 in: Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God, Robert L. Brown (editor), SUNY Series in Tantric Studies (State University of New York Press: Albany, 1991) ISBN 0-7914-0657-1.
  43. ^ Pictures of the 32 meditation forms along with the Sanskrit descriptions appearing in the Śrītattvanidhi are given in: Glory of Ganesha (Central Chinmaya Mission Trust: Bombay, 1995), pp. 85-118. The same set of pictures appears in John A. Grimes, Ganapati: Song of the Self, SUNY Series in Religious Studies (State University of New York Press: Albany, 1995) ISBN 0-7914-2440-5.
  44. ^ Descriptions of the 32 meditation forms appearing in the Śrītattvanidhi are given in pp. 120-123 of Paul Martin-Dubost, Gaņeśa: The Enchanter of the Three Worlds, Project for Indian Cultural Studies, Publication VI, (Franco-Indian Research Pvt. Ltd.: Mumbai, 1997). ISBN 81-900184-3-4
  45. ^ Getty, op. cit. p. 33.
  46. ^ Heras, op. cit., p. 59. E.g., Heras' quotation from Herbert, Ganesa, which says "La couleur rouge de son corps est celle que donne aux grandes yogins la pratique intense de la meditation." (The red color of his body is that which the intense practice of meditation gives to great Yogis.)
  47. ^ Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta ‘khadyota’ vārtika sahita. (Prācya Prakāśana: Vārāṇasī, 1991). Includes the full source text and the commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit.
  48. ^ Apte, A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, p. 720.
  49. ^ सद्योजात (fresh, just-born) + स्वर्ण (golden-colored) + मुंज (muñja-grass) + मेखली (wearing a girdle, nominative case)
  50. ^ Mudgala Purana, VI.9.8 and Ganesha Purana II.125.39; II.6.24; II.31.9. Citations for the Ganesha Purana are from the Yogindra Mata 1985 (Part II) editions.
  51. ^ Mudgala Purana, VIII.43.26-7 and Ganesha Purana II.130.22.
  52. ^ Thapan, op. cit., pp. 192-3.
  53. ^ a b Bailey, Greg (1995). Ganeśapurāna: Introduction, translation, notes and index. Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-03647-8. 
  54. ^ Śiva Purāṇa 2.5.19.15-20, 26 translated in in Courtright, pp. 123-125.
  55. ^ Courtright, p. 124. Courtright repeats this view on p. 213 where he writes that "they are his śaktis (the feminine emanations of his creative powers)."
  56. ^ Ludo Rocher, "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature," in Robert L. Brown, Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God, pp. 69-83.
  57. ^ Paul Courtright, op. cit., pp. 212-3.
  58. ^ Lawrence Cohen, "The Wives of Gaṇeśa," in Robert L. Brown, Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God, p. 130.
  59. ^ Matsya Purana 260.55, ed. Jamna Das Akhtar (Delhi: Oriental Publishers, 1972), 310.
  60. ^ Lawrence Cohen, op. cit., p. 130.
  61. ^ Paul Martin-Dubost, op. cit., p. 332.
  62. ^ Ajitāgama, Vol. III. 55.18.
  63. ^ Arthur Anthony Macdonell, A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, p.118.
  64. ^ Nagar, Shanti Lal. op. cit., p. 5.
  65. ^ Apte, A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, p. 703.
  66. ^ Ganesha Purana I.46, v. 5 of the Ganesha Sahasranama section in GP-1993, Sharma edition. It appears in verse 10 of the version as given in the Bhaskararaya commentary.
  67. ^ Sharma edition, GP-1993 I.46, verses 204-206. The Bailey edition uses a variant text, and where Sharma reads Buddhipriya, Bailey translates "Granter-of-lakhs."
  68. ^ Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta ‘khadyota’ vārtika sahita. (Prācya Prakāśana: Vārāṇasī, 1991). Includes the full source text and the commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit. The name "Buddhaḥ" is in verse 7 of the volume cited, which corresponds to verse 2 of the śasahasranāma proper.
  69. ^ Bhaskararaya's commentary on the name Buddha with commentary verse number is: "नित्यबुद्धस्वरूपत्वात् अविद्यावृत्तिनाशनः । यद्वा जिनावतारत्वाद् बुद्ध इत्यभिधीयते ॥ १५ ॥"
  70. ^ Lawrence Cohen, op. cit., p. 120
  71. ^ Ananda Coomaraswamy, Bulletin of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts 26, no. 153 (1928):30-31, cited in Alice Getty, Gaṇeśa, pp. 217-18.
  72. ^ Getty, op. cit., pp. 20-21.
  73. ^ In the version given in Glory of Ganesha (Central Chinmaya Mission Trust: Bombay: 1987) they are: Shakti Ganapati, Ucchista Ganapati, Mahaganapati, Urdhva Ganapati, Uddanda Ganapati, Sankastharana Ganapati. For variations on this list see Getty, op. cit., pp. 20-21.
  74. ^ Lawrence Cohen, op. cit., p. 121.
  75. ^ Arthur Avalon (John Woodroffe). Śāradā Tilaka Tantram. (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers: Delhi, 1933). 1993 reprint edition ISBN 81-208-1338-3. In particular see section 13; an English translation of section 13 in included in the Introduction.
  76. ^ Prithvi Kumar Agrawala. Goddess Vināyakī: The Female Gaṇeśa. Indian Civilization Series No. XX. (Prithivi Prakashan: Varanasi, 1978). Appendix I: Multiple Gaṇapatis and their female Śaktis. Complete lists for all six variants identified by Agrawala are given in Appendix I in tabular form permitting easy comparison.
  77. ^ Nagar, op. cit., pp. 197-8, provides a list of fifty as described in the Yoginīhṛdaya that is similar to those identified by Agrawala.
  78. ^ The spelling Kala Bo is that given by Lawrence Cohen, op. cit., pp. 124-125.
  79. ^ Paul Martin-Dubost. Gaņeśa: The Enchanter of the Three Worlds. Project for Indian Cultural Studies. Publication VI. (Franco-Indian Research Pvt. Ltd.: Mumbai, 1997). Martin-Dubost uses the term "Kolābau" for this tree, which he discusses pp. 88-90, and 349.
  80. ^ Haridas Mitra. "Ganapati", Visva Bharati Annals 8 (n.d.):246. Cited by Lawrence Cohen, op. cit., p. 124. Cohen (p. 125) says that the reference text "Vishnu Kosh" by Nogindranath Basu also identfies the Kala Bo with Durga herself.
  81. ^ A list of the constituent plants and method of assembly is given in Martin-Dubost, op. cit., pp. 89-90.
  82. ^ Ganesha Purana, I.46.154 (1993 Sharma edition)
  83. ^ Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of Gaṇeśa", pp. 130 in: Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God, Robert L. Brown (editor), SUNY Series in Tantric Studies (State University of New York Press: Albany, 1991) ISBN 0-7914-0657-1.
  84. ^ Santoshī Mā is discussed by Thapan, Anita Raina. Understanding Gaņapati: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult. (Manohar Publishers: New Delhi, 1997). pp. 15-16, 230, 239, 242, 251. ISBN 81-7304-195-4.
  85. ^ Narain, A. K. "Gaņeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon", p. 19 in: Brown, Robert L. (editor), Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God, op. cit.
  86. ^ Nagar, Shanti Lal. op. cit., p. 4.
  87. ^ Narain, A. K. "Gaņeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon", p. 19 in: Brown, Robert L. (editor), Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God, op. cit.
  88. ^ Narain, A. K. "Gaņeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon", pp. 19-20 in: Brown, Robert L. (editor), Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God, op. cit.
  89. ^ Courtright, op. cit., pp. 10-11.
  90. ^ Thapan, op. cit., p. 75.
  91. ^ Wilson, H. H. Ŗgveda Saṃhitā. Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume II: Maṇḍalas 2, 3, 4, 5. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). ISBN 81-7110-140-9 (Vol. II); ISBN 81-7110-138-7 (Set). RV 2.23.1 (2222) gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇapatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnāmupamaśravastamam | 2.23.1; "We invoke the Brahmaṇaspati, chief leader of the (heavenly) bands; a sage of sages".
  92. ^ Nagar, Shanti Lal. op. cit., p. 3.
  93. ^ Ramachandra Rao, S. K. The Compendium on Gaņeśa. (Sri Satguru Publications: Delhi, 1992). p.1. ISBN 81-7030-828-3.
  94. ^ Rocher, Ludo. "Gaņeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature", p. 69. in: Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God; Robert L. Brown, editor; op. cit. Bṛhaspati is a variant name for Brahamanaspati.
  95. ^ Rocher, Ludo. "Gaņeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature", pp. 69-70. in: Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God; Robert L. Brown, editor; op. cit.
  96. ^ Wilson, H. H. Ŗgveda Saṃhitā. Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume IV: Maṇḍalas 9, 10. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). ISBN 81-7110-142-5 (Vol. IV); ISBN 81-7110-138-7 (Set). RV 10.112.9 (10092) ni ṣu sīda gaṇapate gaṇeṣu tvāmāhurvipratamaṃ kavīnām; "Lord of the companies (of the Maruts), sit down among the companies (of the worshippers), they call you the most sage of sages".
  97. ^ Ludo Rocher, "Ganesa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature", pp. 71-72 in: Robert L. Brown, editor, Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God (State University of New York Press: Albany, 1991) ISBN 0-7914-0657-1.
  98. ^ Mahābhārata, critical edition, vol. 1, part 2, 884.
  99. ^ Robert L. Brown, p. 4, "Introduction" in: Robert L. Brown, editor, Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God (State University of New York Press: Albany, 1991) ISBN 0-7914-0657-1.
  100. ^ Moriz Winternitz, "Gaṇeśsa in the Mahābhārata," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1898:382). Citation provided by Rocher, op. cit., p. 80.
  101. ^ Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature", p. 73. in: Brown, Robert L. Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God. (op cit.)
  102. ^ Krishan, Yuvraj. "Chronology of Gaṇeśa and Sculptural Sources" p.103, in Gaṇeśa: Unravelling an Enigma, op. cit.
  103. ^ Thapan, op. cit., passim.
  104. ^ Rocher, Ludo. "Gaņeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature", pp. 70-72. in: Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God; Robert L. Brown, editor; op. cit.
  105. ^ Aitareya Brāhmana, I, 21.
  106. ^ Bhandarkar. Vaisnavism, Saivism and other Minor Sects. pp. 147-48.
  107. ^ Thapan, op. cit., p. 20.
  108. ^ Krishan, op. cit., p. vii.
  109. ^ Grimes, John A. Ganapati: Song of the Self. (State University of New York Press: Albany, 1995) p. 162.
  110. ^ Dating for the pañcāyatana pūjā and its connection with Smārta Brahmins is from Courtright, op. cit., p. 163
  111. ^ Thapan, op. cit., pp. 196-7, addresses the pañcāyatana in the Smārta tradition and the relationship of the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana to it.

[edit] See also

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[edit] Further reading

Most of the source scriptures on Ganesha are in Sanskrit. A collection of useful documents can be found here. At the same site can be found some documents and translations in English here.

There are many books about Ganesha.

  • Brown, Robert L. Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God (State University of New York: Albany 1991). ISBN 0-7914-0657-1.
  • Courtright, Paul B. Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. (Oxford University Press: New York, 1985). ISBN 0-19-505742-2
  • Heras, H. The Problem of Ganapati. (Indological Book House: Delhi, 1972).
  • Krishan, Yuvraj. Gaņeśa: Unravelling An Enigma. (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers: Delhi, 1999) ISBN 81-208-1413-4.
  • Martin-Dubost, Paul. Gaņeśa: The Enchanter of the Three Worlds. (Project for Indian Cultural Studies: Mumbai, 1997). ISBN 81-900184-3-4.
  • Nagar, Shanti Lal. The Cult of Vinayaka. (Intellectual Publishing House: New Delhi, 1992). ISBN 81-7076-043-9.
  • Pal, Pratapaditya. Ganesh: The Benevolent. (Marg Publications: 1995) ISBN 81-85026-31-9.
  • Swami Satyananda Saraswati. Ganesha Puja. (Devi Mandir [Publishers]). ISBN 1-877795-46-1.
  • Thapan, Anita Raina. Understanding Gaņapati: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult. (Manohar Publishers: New Delhi, 1997). ISBN 81-7304-195-4.

[edit] External links


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