Fingerspelling

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Fingerspelling (sometimes known as dactylology) is the representation of the letters of a writing system, and sometimes numeral systems, using only the hands. There are many manual alphabets (also known as finger alphabets or hand alphabets) in use, past and present — especially in deaf education and, subsequently adopted as a distinct part of a number of sign languages around the world.

As with other forms of manual communication, fingerspelling can be comprehended visually or tactually. The simplest visual form of fingerspelling is tracing the shape of letters in the air, or tactually, tracing letters onto the palm. However, most manual alphabets use a unique hand sign to represent individual letters, distinguished by handshape and palm orientation, and sometimes movement, location and mouth patterns. The handshapes are often based on stylised representations of the shapes of the letters as they are written.

Manual alphabets exist for representing Latin, Cyrillic, Greek, Devanāgarī, Bengali, Arabic, Hebrew, Thai, Hangul, Kanji, Kana and Ge'ez scripts. Related manual systems are in use which phonetically represent sound, rather than the written form of a spoken language. These systems, sometimes called "Mouth Hand Systems" (MHS) include Cued Speech and a unique MHS developed in Denmark in 1903 by Georg Forchhammer.[1]

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[edit] Fingerspelling in sign languages

Fingerspelling has been introduced into certain sign languages by educators, both deaf and hearing, and as such has some structural properties that are unlike the visually-motivated and multi-layered signs that are typical in deaf sign languages. In many ways fingerspelling serves as a bridge between the sign language and the spoken language that surrounds it.

Fingerspelling is used in different sign languages and registers for different purposes. It may used be to represent words which have no sign equivalent, or for emphasis, clarification, or when teaching or learning a sign language. In American Sign Language (ASL), more lexical items are fingerspelled in casual conversation than in formal or narrative signing.[2] Different sign language "speech communities" use fingerspelling to a greater or lesser degree. At the high end of the scale,[3] fingerspelling makes up about 8.7% of casual signing in ASL,[4] and 10% of casual signing in Auslan.[5] The proportion is higher in older signers, suggesting that the use of fingerspelling has diminished over time. Across the Tasman Sea, only 2.5% of the corpus of New Zealand Sign Language was found to be fingerspelling.[6] Fingerspelling has only become a part of NZSL since the 1980s;[7] prior to that, words could be spelled or initialised by tracing letters in the air.[8] Fingerspelling does not seem to be used much in the sign languages of Eastern Europe, except in schools,[9] and Italian Sign Language is also said to use very little fingerspelling, and mainly for foreign words. Sign languages that make no use of fingerspelling at all include Kata Kolok and Ban Khor Sign Language.

1140 AD illustration of a finger alphabet and counting system described by Bede in 710 AD. The Greek alphabet is represented, with three additional letters making a total of 27, by the first three columns of numbers. The first two columns are produced on the left hand, and the next two columns on the right.
1140 AD illustration of a finger alphabet and counting system described by Bede in 710 AD. The Greek alphabet is represented, with three additional letters making a total of 27, by the first three columns of numbers. The first two columns are produced on the left hand, and the next two columns on the right.

The speed and clarity of fingerspelling also varies between different signing communities. In Italian Sign Language, fingerspelled words are relatively slow and clearly produced, whereas fingerspelling in standard British Sign Language (BSL) is often rapid so that the individual letters become difficult to distinguish, and the word is grasped from the overall hand movement. Most of the letters of the BSL alphabet are produced with two hands, but when one hand is occupied, the dominant hand may fingerspell onto an "imaginary" subordinate hand, and the word can be recognised by the movement. As with written words, the first and last letters and the length of the word are the most significant factors for recognition.

When persons fluent in sign language read fingerspelling, they do not usually look at the signer's hand(s), but maintain eye contact and look at the face of the signer as is normal for sign language. People who are learning fingerspelling often find it impossible to understand it using just their peripheral vision and must look directly at the hand of someone who is fingerspelling. Often, they must also ask the signer to fingerspell slowly. It frequently takes years of expressive and receptive practice to become skilled with fingerspelling.

[edit] History

Alphabetic gestures have been discovered in hundreds of medieval and renaissance paintings. The above is from Fernando Gallego's retablo panels, 1480-1488, in Ciudad Rodrigo.
Alphabetic gestures have been discovered in hundreds of medieval and renaissance paintings.[10] The above is from Fernando Gallego's retablo panels, 1480-1488, in Ciudad Rodrigo.

Some writers have suggested that the body and hands were used to represent alphabets in Greek, Roman, Egyptian and Assyrian antiquity.[11] Certainly, "finger calculus" systems were widespread, and capable of representing numbers up to 10,000;[12] they are still in use today in parts of the Middle East. The practice of substituting letters for numbers and vice versa, known as gematria, was also common, and it is possible that the two practices were combined to produce a finger calculus alphabet. The earliest known manual alphabet, described by the Benedictine monk Bede in 8th century Northumbria, did just that.[13] While the usual purpose of the Latin and Greek finger alphabets described by Bede is unknown, they were unlikely to have been used by deaf people for communication — even though Bede lost his own hearing later in life. Historian Lois Bragg concludes that these alphabets were "only a bookish game."[14]

Beginning with R. A. S. Macalister in 1938,[15] several writers have speculated that the 5th century Irish Ogham script, with its quinary alphabet system, was derived from a finger alphabet that predates even Bede.[16]

Antique hand memory system, three variants. Originally published in "Thesavrvs Artificiosae Memoriae", in Venice, 1579.
Antique hand memory system, three variants. Originally published in "Thesavrvs Artificiosae Memoriae", in Venice, 1579.

European monks from at least the time of Bede have made use of forms of manual communication, including alphabetic gestures, for a number of reasons: communication among the monastery while observing vows of silence, administering to the ill, and as mnemonic devices. They also may have been used as ciphers for discreet or secret communication. Clear antecedents of many of the manual alphabets in use today can be seen from the 16th century in books published by friars in Spain and Italy.[17] From the same time, monks such as the Benedictine Fray Pedro Ponce de León began tutoring deaf children of wealthy patrons — in some places, literacy was a requirement for legal recognition as an heir — and the manual alphabets found a new purpose.[18] They were originally part of the earliest known Mouth Hand Systems. The first book on deaf education, published in 1620 in Madrid, included a detailed account of the use of a manual alphabet to teach deaf students to read and speak.[19]

Plate from John Bulwer's 1648 publication Philocopus, or the Deaf and Dumbe Mans Friend (London).
Plate from John Bulwer's 1648 publication Philocopus, or the Deaf and Dumbe Mans Friend (London).

Meanwhile in Britain, manual alphabets were also in use for a number of purposes, such as secret communication,[20] public speaking, or used for communication by deaf people.[21] In 1648, John Bulwer described "Master Babington", a deaf man proficient in the use of a manual alphabet, "contryved on the joynts of his fingers", whose wife could converse with him easily, even in the dark though the use of tactile signing.[22] In 1680, George Dalgarno published Didascalocophus, or, The deaf and dumb mans tutor,[23] in which he presented his own method of deaf education, including an "arthrological" alphabet, where letters are indicated by pointing to different joints of the fingers and palm of the left hand. Arthrological systems had been in use by hearing people for some time;[24] some have speculated that they can be traced to early Ogham manual alphabets.[25] The vowels of this alphabet have survived in the contemporary alphabets used in British Sign Language, Auslan and New Zealand Sign Language. The earliest known printed pictures of consonants of the modern two-handed alphabet appeared in 1698 with Digiti Lingua, a pamphlet by an anonymous author who was himself unable to speak. He suggested that the manual alphabet could also be used by mutes, for silence and secrecy, or purely for entertainment. Nine of its letters can be traced to earlier alphabets, and 17 letters of the modern two-handed alphabet can be found among the two sets of 26 handshapes depicted.

Charles de La Fin published a book in 1692 describing an alphabetic system where pointing to a body part represented the first letter of the part (eg. Brow=B), and vowels were located on the fingertips as with the other British systems.[26] He described codes for both English and Latin.

By 1720, the British manual alphabet had found more or less its present form.[27] Descendants of this alphabet have been used by deaf communities (or at least in classrooms) in former British colonies India, Australia, New Zealand, Uganda and South Africa, as well as the republics and provinces of the former Yugoslavia, Grand Cayman Island in the Caribbean, Indonesia, Norway, Germany and the USA.

[edit] Latin alphabet

There are two families of manual alphabets used for representing the Latin alphabet in the modern world. The more common of the two[28] is mostly produced on one hand, and can be traced back to alphabetic signs used in Europe from at least the early 15th century. The alphabet, first described completely by Spanish monks, was adopted by the Abbé de l'Épée's deaf school in Paris in the 18th century, and was then spread to deaf communities around the world in the 19th and 20th centuries via educators who had learnt it there. Over time, variations have emerged, brought about by natural phonetic changes that occur over time, adaptions for local written forms with special characters or diacritics, and avoidance of handshapes that are considered obscene in some cultures. Modern descendants include the American Manual Alphabet and the International Manual Alphabet.

Several different two-handed manual alphabets are used by a number of deaf communities around the world. In many of these places, such as countries of the former Yugoslavia and in Turkish Sign Language, the vowels are represented by iconic signs, whereas in the BANZSL group of languages they are represented by pointing to the fingertips.

[edit] Other alphabets

Manual alphabets based on the Arabic alphabet, the Ethiopian syllabary and the Korean Hangul syllabary-alphabet use handshapes that are more or less iconic representations of the characters in the writing system. Some manual representations of non-Roman scripts such as Chinese, Japanese, Indian Nagari, Israeli, Greek, Thai and Russian alphabets are based to some extent on the one-handed Roman alphabet described above.

[edit] References

  1. ^ Birch-Rasmussen, S. (1982). Mundhandsystemet. Copenhagen: Doves Center for Total Kommunikation.
    Reynolds, Brian Watkins (1980). Speechreading training related to the Danish mouth handsystem for adventitiously hearing impaired adults. Ann Arbor : U.M.I. 1980 - 145 p. Dissertation: Purdue Univ.
  2. ^ Morford, Jill Patterson, and MacFarlane, James (2003). Frequency Characteristics of American Sign Language. Sign Language Studies, Volume 3, Number 2, Winter 2003, pp. 213-225
  3. ^ Padden, Carol A. (2003). How the alphabet came to be used in a sign language, Sign Language Studies, 4.1. Gallaudet University Press
  4. ^ Ibid.
  5. ^ Schembri, A. & Johnston, T. (in press). Sociolinguistic variation in fingerspelling in Australian Sign Language (Auslan): A pilot study. Sign Language Studies.
  6. ^ McKee, David and Kennedy, Graeme (2000). Corpus analysis of New Zealand Sign Language. Paper presented at the 7th International Conference on Theoretical Issues in Sign Language Research. Amsterdam. July 23rd-27th
  7. ^ McKee, R. L., & McKee, D. (2002). A guide to New Zealand Sign Language grammar. Deaf Studies Research Unit, Occasional Publication No.3, Victoria University of Wellington.
  8. ^ Forman, Wayne. (2003) The ABCs of New Zealand Sign Language: Aerial Spelling. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education. Volume 8, Number 1, January 2003. ISSN 1081-4159.
  9. ^ J. Albert Bickford (2005). The Signed Languages of Eastern EuropePDF (8.62 MiB). SIL Electronic Survey Report.
  10. ^ From a University of Arizona press release: "An accidental discovery in 1991 of a manual alphabet in a 1444 painting of King Charles VII of France by Jean Fouquet has led Joseph Castronovo to decipher the "artistic signatures" in over 500 pieces of art work." [1]
    See also: Bragg, Lois (1996). Chaucer's Monogram and the 'Hoccleve Portrait' Tradition, Word and Image 12 (1996): 12
  11. ^ Barrois, J. (1850). Dactylologie et langage primitif. Paris 1850; Firmin Didot freres.
  12. ^ Alföldi-Rosenbaum, E. (1971). The finger calculus in antiquity and in the Middle Ages: Studies on Roman game counters part I. Friihmiltelalterliche Studien, 6, 1-9.
    See also: Menninger, K. (1958). Number words and number symbols: A cultural history of numbers. Translated by Paul Broneer. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1969. (p. 201). Originally published as Zahlwort und Ziffer (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht).
  13. ^ Bede. (710 AD). De Computo vel Loguela per Gestum Digitorum ("Of counting or speaking with the fingers"), preface to De temporum ratione ("On the reckoning of time"). Illustrated in 1140 AD, National Library, Madrid.
  14. ^ Bragg, Lois (1997). Visual-Kinetic Communication in Europe Before 1600: A Survey of Sign Lexicons and Finger Alphabets Prior to the Rise of Deaf Education. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education 2:1 Winter 1997
  15. ^ Macalister, R. A. S. (1928). The Archaeology of Ireland. London: Meuthen
  16. ^ See, for example: Graves, Robert, (1948). The White Goddess.
  17. ^ Cosma-Rossellios R.P.F. (1579) "Thesavrvs Artificiosae Memoriae", Venice.
    Fray Melchor de Yebra, (1593) Refugium Infirmorum
  18. ^ Plann, Susan. (1997). A Silent Minority: Deaf Education in Spain, 1550-1835. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  19. ^ Juan Pablo Bonet (1620). Reduction de las letras y Arte para enseñar á hablar los Mudos ("The Adaptation of Letters and Arts for Teaching Mutes to Speak"). Published by Francisco Abarca de Angulo, Madrid.
  20. ^ Wilkins, John (1641). Mercury, the Swift and Silent Messenger. The book is a work on cryptography, and fingerspelling was referred to as one method of "secret discoursing, by signes and gestures". Wilkins gave an example of such a system: "Let the tops of the fingers signifie the five vowels; the middle parts, the first five consonants; the bottomes of them, the five next consonants; the spaces betwixt the fingers the foure next. One finger laid on the side of the hand may signifie T. Two fingers V the consonant; Three W. The little finger crossed X. The wrist Y. The middle of the hand Z." (1641:116-117)
  21. ^ John Bulwer's "Chirologia: or the naturall language of the hand.", published in 1644, London, mentions that alphabets are in use by Deaf people, although Bulwer presents a different system which is focussed on public speaking.
  22. ^ Bulwer, J. (1648) Philocopus, or the Deaf and Dumbe Mans Friend, London: Humphrey and Moseley.
  23. ^ Dalgarno, George. Didascalocophus, or, The deaf and dumb mans tutor. Oxford: Halton, 1680.
  24. ^ See Wilkins (1641) above. Wilkins is aware that the systems he describes are old, and refers to Bede's account of Roman and Greek finger alphabets.
  25. ^ http://www.bris.ac.uk/Depts/DeafStudiesTeaching/bslsoc/Sessions/s9.htm
  26. ^ Charles de La Fin (1692). Sermo mirabilis, or, The silent language whereby one may learn ... how to impart his mind to his friend, in any language ... being a wonderful art kept secret for several ages in Padua, and now published only to the wise and prudent ... London, Printed for Tho. Salusbury... and sold by Randal Taylor... 1692. OCLC 27245872
  27. ^ Daniel Defoe (1720). "The Life and Adventures of Mr. Duncan Campbell"
  28. ^ Carmel, Simon (1982). International hand alphabet charts. National Association of the Deaf (United States); 2nd edition. (June 1982). ISBN 0-9600886-2-8

[edit] Bibliography

  • Eriksson, P. (1996) „Facets of Deaf History”. En: Fischer, R. y T. Vollhaber (eds.) Collage. Works on International Deaf History. Hamburgo: Signum, págs. 95-106.
  • Günther, K.B. (1996) „The Role of the Manual Alphabet in Deaf Education in the 16th/17th Centuries”. En: Fischer, R. y T. Vollhaber (eds.) Collage. Works on International Deaf History. Hamburgo: Signum, págs. 107-116

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

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