Eschatology
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Eschatology (from the Greek ἔσχατος, Eschatos meaning "last" + -logy) is a part of theology and philosophy concerned with the final events in the history of the world, or the ultimate destiny of humanity, commonly referred to as the end of the world. While in mysticism the phrase metaphorically refers to the end of reality and reunion with the Divine, in many traditional religions it is taught as an actual future event prophesied in sacred texts or folklore. More broadly, eschatology may encompass related concepts such as the Messiah or Messianic Age, the end time, and the end of days.
The Greek word αἰών (aeon), meaning "age", may be translated as "end of the age (or historical period[1])" instead of "end of the world". The time distinction also has theological significance; while the end of time in mystical traditions relates to escaping confinement in the "given" reality, some religions believe and fear it to be the literal destruction of the planet (or of all living things) - with the human race surviving in some new form, ending the current "age" of existence.
Most Western monotheistic religions have doctrines claiming that "chosen" or "worthy" members of the one true religion will be "spared" or "delivered" from the coming judgment and wrath of God. They will be ushered into paradise either before, during, or afterwards depending upon the end-time scenario to which they hold.
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[edit] Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism eschatology is the oldest eschatology in recorded history.[2][3][4] By 500 BC, Zoroastrians had fully developed a concept of the end of the world through a divine devouring in fire.
According to Zoroastrian philosophy, redacted in the Zand-i Vohuman Yasht, "at the end of thy tenth hundredth winter...the sun is more unseen and more spotted; the year, month, and day are shorter; and the earth is more barren; and the crop will not yield the seed; and men ... become more deceitful and more given to vile practices. They have no gratitude." "Honorable wealth will all proceed to those of perverted faith...and a dark cloud makes the whole sky night..and it will rain more noxious creatures than winter."
At the end of the Battle between the righteous and wicked, a Final Judgment of all souls will commence. Sinners will be punished for 3 days, but are then forgiven. The world will reach perfection as poverty, old age, disease, thirst, hunger, and death are halted. Zoroastrian concepts parallel greatly with those of Jewish, Christian, and Islamic eschatological beliefs largely due to the influence Zoroastrianism exerted on Judaism whilst the Levant was under Achaemenid control and the subsequent emergence of Christianity and Islam from Judaism.
[edit] Judaism
In Judaism, the end of the world is called the Acharit hayamim ("End of days"). Tumultuous events will overturn the old world order[citation needed], creating a new order in which God is universally recognized as the ruler over everyone and everything. One of the sages of the Talmud says, "Let the end of days come, but may I not live to see them", because they will be filled with so much conflict and suffering.
The Talmud, in the tractate Avodah Zarah, page 9A, states that this world as we know it will only exist for six thousand years. The Jewish calendar (luach) functions completely on the assumption that time begins at the creation of Adam, the primordial man. Many people (notably Conservative and Reform Jews and some Christians) think that the years of the Torah, or Jewish Bible, are symbolic. According to the ancient Jewish teachings continued by today's Orthodox Jews, the years are literal and consistent throughout all time, with 24 hours per day and an average of 365 days per year. Appropriate calibrations are, of course, done with leap years, to account for the difference between the lunar calendar and the solar calendar, since the Jewish calendar is based on both. Thus the year 2007 equals 5767 years since creation of man on the present Jewish calendar. According to this calculation, the end of days will occur at or before the year 2240.
According to Jewish tradition, those living during the end times will see:
- Ingathering of the scattered Jewish exiles to geographic Israel,
- Defeat of all of Israel's enemies,
- Building (or divine placement) of the third Jewish Temple in Jerusalem and the resumption of the sacrificial offerings and Temple service,
- Revival of the Dead (techiat hameitim), or the Resurrection,
- At some point, the Jewish Messiah will become the anointed King of Israel. He will divide the Jews in Israel into their original tribal portions in the land. During this time, Gog, king of Magog, will attack Israel. Who Gog and the Magog nation are is unknown. Magog will fight a great battle, in which many will die on both sides, but God will intervene and save the Jews. This is the battle referred to as Armageddon. God, having vanquished this final enemy once and for all, will accordingly banish all evil from human existence. After the year 6000 (in the Jewish calendar), the seventh millennium will be an era of holiness, tranquility, spiritual life, and worldwide peace, called the Olam Haba ("Future World"), where all people will know God directly."
"All Israel have a portion in the world to come." (Talmud Sanhedrin 10:1) The Ramban (Nachmanades) interprets the world to come as the ultimate good and purpose of creation. He therefore holds that the world to come actually refers to the resurrection of the dead. An event that will occur after the messianic age has already begun. The Ramban holds that all Israel, even the sinners, have a portion in this epoch of resurrection. (The Tzemach Tzedek, Derech Mitzvosecha, Law of Tzitzis).[citation needed]
[edit] Buddhism
Buddha predicted that his teachings would disappear after 500 years. According to the Sutta Pitaka, the "ten moral courses of conduct" will disappear and people will follow the ten amoral concepts of theft, violence, murder, lying, evil speaking, adultery, abusive and idle talk, covetousness and ill will, wanton greed, and perverted lust resulting in skyrocketing poverty and the end of the worldly laws of true dharma.
During the Middle Ages, the span of time was expanded to 5,000 years. Commentators like Buddhaghosa predicted a step-by-step disappearance of the Buddha's teachings. During the first stage, arahats would no longer appear in the world. Later, the content of the Buddha's true teachings would vanish, and only their form would be preserved. Finally, even the form of the Dharma would be forgotten. During the final stage, the memory of the Buddha himself would be forgotten, and the last of his relics would be gathered together in Bodh Gaya and cremated. Some time following this development a new Buddha named Maitreya will arise to renew the teachings of Buddhism and rediscover the path to Nirvana. Maitreya is believed to currently reside in the Tushita heaven, where he is awaiting his final rebirth in the world.
The decline of Buddhism in the world, and its eventual re-establishment by Maitreya, are in keeping with the general shape of Buddhist cosmology. Like Hindus, Buddhists generally believe in a cycle of creation and destruction, of which the current epoch represents only the latest step. The historical Buddha Shakyamuni is only the latest in a series of Buddhas that stretches back into the past.
[edit] Christianity
Some Christians in the 1st century AD believed the end of the world could come during their lifetime since Jesus' had said to his followers, to be alert at all times of your life. This had been meant for all generations of believers. When the converts of Paul in Thessalonica were persecuted by the Roman Empire, they believed the end was upon them[citation needed]. However, doubt rose when as early as the 90s AD Christians said, "We have heard these things [of the end of the world] even in the days of our fathers, and look, we have grown old and none of them has happened to us".[1] The Mark 13:8 passage, as well as Mathew 24:6-8, are often misunderstood (examples?[citation needed]) as these indicate that the wars and rumours of wars are signs that the End is yet to come, not that it has come. However the world could not come to an end unless the prophecy of the Book of Revelation is revealed, also, Christians particularly the fundamental-type connect the end times with the New World Order (conspiracy).
However, by the 3rd century most Christians believed the End was beyond their own lifetime[citation needed]; Jesus, it was believed, had denounced attempts to divine the future, to know the "times and seasons", and such attempts to predict the future were discouraged in Matthew 24:36; yet some attempted to suggest a date for the End with the help of Jewish traditions in the Six Ages of the World. Using this system, the End was fixed at 202, but when the date passed, the date was changed to AD 500[citation needed].
Some current Christians place the end of the world within their lifetime or shortly thereafter[citation needed]. As evidence to support these ideas, many point to the prolific news coverage of tragedies around the world, sometimes "Biblical" in proportion, and offer interpretations of various passages from the Bible[citation needed]. Also, some Catholics believed that the third part of the Fatima message, which was to be disclosed by the Vatican in 1960 but finally was published under the pontificate of John Paul II, was a prophetic message from the Blessed Mother about the end times, but they now believe it to be a symbolic message closely related to the assassination attempt of the late Pope[citation needed].
Millennialists concentrate on the issue of whether the true believers will see the tribulation or be removed from it by the Rapture, a question which causes division in evangelical circles. Amillennialists believe the end times encompass the time from Christ's ascension to the Last day, and maintain that the "thousand years" is metaphorical[citation needed].
Current biblical scholarship, particularly form criticism, tends to view the apocalyptic language in the Bible as being addressed to events at the time of the authors of its various books. Revelation, for example, is interpreted as a polemic against Rome, and a deep theological expression about the futility of temporal power in the face of faith in God[citation needed]. Similar non-canonical works previously accepted as valid by the Christian Church[citation needed], such as the Apocalypse of Peter present a variety of apocalyptic scenarios and may have originally been intended as spiritual allegories[citation needed].
Still other Christians anticipate that biblical prophecy will be fulfilled literally[citation needed]. They see current world and regional wars, earthquakes, hurricanes and famines as the beginning of the birth pains which Jesus described in Matthew 24:7-8and Mark 13:8
[edit] Hinduism
Hindu traditional prophecies, as described in the Puranas and several other texts, say that the world shall fall into chaos and degradation. There will then be a rapid influx of perversity, greed and conflict, and this state has been described as:
"Yada Yada Hi Dharmasya Glanir Bhavati Bharata, Abhyuthanam Adharmasya Tadatmanam Srijami Aham". Bhagavad Gita (Chapter IV-7)
"Whenever there is decay of righteousness O! Bharatha And a rise of unrighteousness then I manifest Myself!"
Thus whenever there is intolerable evil and chaos in the world, there is an appearance of an avatar. In the current yuga, known as the Kali (the most evil) yuga, "The Lord shall manifest Himself as the Kalki Avatar... He will establish righteousness upon the earth and the minds of the people will become as pure as crystal."
In Hinduism, there is no eternal damnation of souls. There is no end times as well. After this evil Kali yuga ends, the next yuga or epoch would be Satya yuga where everyone will be righteous, followed by Dwapara yuga, Treta yuga and then another Kali Yuga. Thus time is cyclical and the epochs keep repeating infinitely. However, the extent of tolerable evil and degradation in each epoch is different and therefore the threshold that is necessary for the manifestation of God's incarnation is different for each yuga. The current yuga is the most evil and so the threshold for the appearance of the avatar is so high that the world needs to degrade to the maximum levels.
The length of Kalpa is said to be different by various groups from 5,000 years according the Brahma Kumaris World Spiritual University to 4,320 million years in the terms of orthodox Hindus. The BKWSU is unique amongst Hindu cults in believing in a 5th age called the Confluence Age which correlates to the Christian concept of "End Times", a time of both destruction of the world and revelation of God. According to the BKWSU, humanity entered the End Times in approximately 1936 and the world will end in approximately 2036; although there was a failed prediction of the end of the world in 1976.
[edit] Islam
Islamic eschatology is concerned with the Qiyamah (end of the world; Last Judgment) and the final judgment of humanity. Eschatology relates to one of the six articles of faith (aqidah) of Islam. Like the other Abrahamic religions, Islam teaches the bodily resurrection of the dead, the fulfillment of a divine plan for creation, and the immortality of the human soul; the righteous are rewarded with the pleasures of Jannah (Heaven), while the unrighteous are punished in Jahannam (Hell). A significant fraction of the Quran deals with these beliefs, with many hadith elaborating on the themes and details. Islamic apocalyptic literature describing the Armageddon is often known as fitna (a test) and malahim (or ghayba in the shi'ite tradition).
[edit] Shia Islam
In Shia Islamic thought, there is a worldly reality that is mentioned to occur before the end of human life on earth. The events that occur in the final moments of humanity will mainly revolve around Dajjal and his ability to woo humanity to a new world religion, one that is not divinely issued. The idea of a Mahdi returning to help humanity against the "Great Deception" is also mentioned in Sunni traditions, but is specifically outlined as Muhammad al-Mahdi in Shia sources. There are many sources that have prophecies regarding the last days, with only some that are accepted as repeated in different sources by different people. A majority of Shia scholars agree on the following detail of events that will occur in the final days:
1) The Dajjal will claim to be the savior of humanity and people of all faiths will unite under his religion
2) Most people around the world will be able to communicate with each other and see each other in the palm of their hands
3) There will be mass killings of Shias in Iraq (around the Euphrates), and there will be prices put on their hands, even if they are not criminals
4) In Palestine and Syria (the region may be allied or one), there will be nearly 70,000 Jews of illegitimate birth serving in the army
5) There will be a revolt by a "Yamani" who will be defeated in his efforts
6) The Mahdi will reappear and make a speech at the Kaba and will gather a small army of 10,313 people to defeat the Dajjal
7) A person by the name of "Sufyani" (his religion is not mentioned, though he is a descendant of the disintegrated Ummayyad dynasty whose scattered descendants may have been in the Levant and Spain or Morocco over the last 12 centuries) will lead forces from Syria across Iraq to Arabia to defeat the Mahdi's forces along with his Allies
8) At the battlefront near Mecca, Dajjal's forces will be swallowed by the sand
9) The Mahdi will establish a new religion (in Sunni tradition, it will be the same as before), and the world will find harmony
10) There will be 27 years of his reign on earth
11) His wife, who will be of the Jews, will poison him and he will die (many disagree on this account as there are other historical Jewish women poisoning men in Islamic tradition)
12) The resurrection of men and women will begin as the Day of Judgement will commence
[edit] Mormonism
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believe that at the beginning of the Millennial Era, Jesus Christ the Lord will appear in his Second Coming and usher in a thousand year era of peace called the Millennium, when Satan will be bound (Doctrine and Covenants 88:110). The wicked will be removed from the earth and the righteous will be "caught up to meet him," and a resurrection of the righteous who have died will occur--they will also "be caught up to meet him." (Doctrine and Covenants 88:96-97). During the Millenium, every man or woman to ever live on the Earth will be resurrected; those who were righteous will be resurrected at the beginning and be able to visit the earth to restore knowledge about family histories; the wicked will be resurrected at the end of the Millenium (D & C 76:85).
At the time of each person's resurrection, their Last Judgment will occur, during which all beings will be placed into one of three heavenly kingdoms; the Celestial Kingdom, Terrestrial Kingdom, and Telestial Kingdom. In the Doctrine and Covenants, Joseph Smith Jr., translator of the Book of Mormon and first prophet, leader, and seer of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, puts the kingdoms into levels of glory in symbolic comparison to the sun, the moon, and the stars. The sun being the brightest, is relative to the glory of the celestial kingdom, which is for those who obey the commandments, live righteously, become baptized. The moon, being the second brightest, is relative to the terrestrial kingdom, which is for those who are righteous in a sense, but do not constantly obey the commandments and/or are not baptized. The stars, being the least brightest, are relative to the telestial kingdom, which is for those who are wicked and commit major sins without repenting, including murderers. A very small group of people who reject Jesus Christ after receiving full and indisputable knowledge of his divinity, will go to what is called Outer darkness, which is where Satan will eventually be sent with his hosts of angels.(D & C 76:43-46)
While the exact time of Christ's return is not known, certain signs are accepted as pointing to his return:
- The mountain of the Lord’s house shall be established in the top of the mountains, Isa. 2: 2-3.
- The Lord shall lift an ensign and gather Israel, Isa. 5: 26 (2 Ne. 15: 26-30).
- The sun shall be darkened and the moon shall not cause her light to shine, Isa. 13: 10 (Joel 3: 15; D & C 29: 14).
- Men shall transgress the law and break the everlasting covenant, Isa. 24: 5.
- The Nephites (ancient fallen people of the Americas, descended from Joseph of Egypt) shall speak as a voice from the dust, Isa. 29: 4 (2 Ne. 27).
- Israel shall be gathered with power, Isa. 49: 22-23 (1 Ne. 21: 22-23; 3 Ne. 20-21).
- God shall set up a kingdom which shall not be destroyed, Dan. 2: 44 (D & C 65: 2).
- War, dreams, and visions shall precede the Second Coming, Joel 2.
- All nations will gather against Jerusalem to battle, Zech. 14: 2 (Ezek. 38-39).
- The day cometh that shall burn as an oven, Mal. 4: 1 (3 Ne. 25: 1; D & C 133: 64; JS-H 1: 37).
- Great calamities shall precede the Second Coming, Matt. 24 (JS-M 1).
- Paul described apostasy and perilous times of the last days, 2 Tim. 3-4.
- Two prophets will be slain and resurrected in Jerusalem, Rev. 11 (D & C 77: 15).
- The gospel shall be restored in the last days by angelic ministry, Rev. 14: 6-7 (D & C 13; 27; 110: 11-16; 128: 8-24).
- Babylon will be established and fall, Rev. 17-18.
- Israel shall be gathered with power, 1 Ne. 21: 13-26 (Isa. 49: 13-26; 3 Ne. 20-21).
- The Book of Mormon shall come forth by the power of God, Morm. 8.
- Lamanites (Indigenous peoples of the Americas) to blossom, D & C 49: 24-25.
- The wicked to slay the wicked, D & C 63: 32-35 (Rev. 9).
- War will be poured out upon all nations, D & C 87: 2.
- Signs, upheavals of the elements, and angels prepare the way for the coming of the Lord, D & C 88: 86-94.
- Darkness to cover the earth, D & C 112: 23-24.
[edit] American Indian
Several American Indian tribes hold similar beliefs concerning the end times.
[edit] Hopi
Tribal leaders of the Hopi tribe, such as Dan Evehema, Thomas Banyaca and Martin Gashwaseoma, prophesize that the coming of the white man signals the end times, along with a strange beast "like a buffalo but with great horns that would overrun the land". It is prophesied that during the end times, the earth would be crossed by iron snakes and stone rivers; the land would be criss-crossed by a giant spider's web, and seas will turn black. (A common speculative interpretation is to equal "iron snakes" with trains, "rock rivers" with highways and the giant spiders web with powerlines or even the world wide web.)
It is also prophesied that a "great dwelling place" in the heavens shall fall with a great crash. It will appear as a blue star, and the earth will rock to and fro. White men would then battle people in other lands, with those who possess wisdom of their presence. There would then be smoke in the deserts, and the signs that great destruction is near.
Many would then die, but those who understand the prophecies shall live in the places of the Hopi people and be safe. The Pahana or "True White Brother" would then return to plant the seeds of wisdom in people's hearts, and thus usher in the dawn of the Fifth World.
[edit] Lakota
According to an Oglala Lakota medicine man - "darkness would descend over the tribe...the world would be out of balance. Floods, fires and earthquakes would then ensue."
A "White Buffalo Calf Woman" will then purify the world. She will then bring back harmony and spiritual balance.
White bisons have been born in 1994, in 1995 and in 2006 at a farm in Janesville, Wisconsin. Many tribal leaders thus feel that the prophecy is being fulfilled.[citation needed]
[edit] Maya
The ancient and many modern Maya groups believe that the universe has been renewed four previous times. The first attempt at human life produced animals instead; the second produced a people made of clay who would eventually become certain insects (such as ants and bees); the third attempt produced monkeys; and the fourth attempt produced us: "true humans." Each prior attempt at the human creation was destroyed by a different catastrophe which ended the universe. These stories vary by Maya group: the animals were nearly destroyed by a flood, the people of clay were nearly destroyed by a flood and then a global firestorm, the monkey-people were attacked by their own belongings and their animals.
The astronomically-based Mayan calendar will be completing its first great cycle of approximately 5,200 years on the 21 December, 2012. Although there is no substantial evidence that the ancient Maya considered the date significant, many people have postulated that this is the "end of the Universe" from the Mayan perspective, and others believe that the Mayans meant this to symbolize the "coming of a great change."
[edit] Norse mythology
In Norse mythology a strong winter called the Fimbulwinter will seize the earth and bring disorder and fighting between the people of Midgard just before Ragnarok. Ragnarok ("fate of the gods") is the battle during the end of the world waged between the gods (the Æsir, the Vanir and the Einherjar, led by Odin) and the forces of Chaos (the fire giants, the Jotuns and various monsters, led by Loki). Not only will the gods, giants, and monsters perish in this apocalyptic conflagration, but almost everything in the universe will be torn asunder. Only the gods Váli and Vidar will survive to rule over a new world, with a ressurected Baldr.
[edit] Prophetic movements
- In 1843, William Miller made the first of several predictions that the world would end in only a few months. Obviously, none of them took place, but followers of Miller went on to found separate churches, the most successful of which is the Seventh-day Adventist Church.
[edit] Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses have developed their own unique eschatology, involving the Second Coming of Jesus Christ and the start of the Last Days. Witnesses believe that the Holy Bible is the word of God and his means of communicating with us. They believe that Bible prophecy has always been precisely fulfilled in the past. Therefore they also believe that future prophecy will also come exactly true. Witnesses believe that the term "last days" refers to the concluding time period leading up a divinely appointed execution that marks the end of a system of things. Scriptures had a minor fulfillment involving the time period before the end of the Jewish system of things in 70 C.E. and are now having a major fulfillment in this time period before God cleanses the earth of Satan's wicked system of things.
Witnesses believe that the last days began in 1914 when Jehovah God installed Jesus as the King of God's Kingdom. His first action is described in where Jesus cleanses heaven and casts Satan to the earth. Conditions on earth would then deteriorate to an all time low, culminating in war, pestilence, and earthquakes. Witnesses believe that history proved this date true with the start of World War I in 1914 and the worst global epidemic to date in the Spanish Influenza in 1918.
In the future, Witnesses believe that God will cleanse the earth of all wickedness and Satan will be bound for 1,000 years. During this time period, people will be resurrected to life on earth and given a chance to learn about God (Jehovah) and live under the the invisible rule of Jesus Christ. (They believe Jesus sacrificed his earthly life, thus his "return" would not be of flesh and blood as a human, but instead would be an exercise of power over the earth). They feel biblical prophecy shows there will be no more death or sickness and people will live in peace and harmony, just as God originally purposed for Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden.
[edit] Other religions
Ancient Greek mythology claimed that, as Zeus had done to his father Chronus, Zeus would too be overthrown by a son. This can be seen as the equivalent to the end of the world, or the end of an age. Prometheus revealed to him that this son would be born from Zeus and Thetis, if they copulated. In order to prevent this from happening, Zeus married Thetis to Peleus, a weak mortal. This union still produced Achilles, the protagonist of the Illiad and one of the greatest heroes of Greek myth.
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[edit] Philosophy
Eschatology has also been a belief shared, sometimes theorized, by philosophers. Saint Augustine has been one of the most famous eschatological thinkers, followed by Hegel's philosophy of history, and, some have argued Marxists – as a secular religion. Theodicy has gathered together most Enlightenment thinkers, among whom are Kant and Rousseau.
More recently, many involved in futures studies and transhumanism note the accelerating rate of scientific progress and anticipate a technological singularity in the 21st century that would profoundly and unpredictably change the course of human history[citation needed].
[edit] Notes
- ^ Achtemeier, P. J., Harper & Row, P., & Society of Biblical Literature, Harper's Bible Dictionary, San Francisco: HarperCollins Publishers, 1985, ISBN 0-06-065673-5, s.v. "eschatology"
- ^ http://www.experiencefestival.com/zoroastrianism
- ^ http://www.answers.com/topic/zoroastrian-eschatology
- ^ http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/t/thompson-time.html
[edit] See also
- 2012
- Amillennialism
- Ancient Aztec eschatology
- Apocalypse
- Apocalypticism (Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Rastafari Movement; comprehensive "see also" links)
- Armageddon, End times
- Death and Eternal Life, by John Hick
- The End Is Nigh, a magazine looking at the end of the world
- Eschatology (religious movement)
- Futurology
- Immanentize the eschaton
- Judgment day
- Millennialism
- Messianism and Messiah
- The Pocket Guide to the Apocalypse
- Postmillennialism
- Premillennialism / Millenarianism
- Preterism
- Realized eschatology
- Six Ages of the World
- Technological singularity
- Ultimate fate of the universe
- The Urantia Book
[edit] External links
Categories: Articles lacking sources from March 2007 | All articles lacking sources | Articles with unsourced statements since March 2007 | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since February 2007 | Articles with sections needing expansion | Eschatology | Christian theology | Prophecy | Philosophical terminology | Mythemes | Religious philosophy and doctrine
