Enlarger
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
An enlarger is a specialized transparency projector used to produce photographic prints from film or glass negatives. Prints made with an enlarger are known as enlargements. Typical enlargers are used in a darkroom, an enclosed space from which extraneous light may be excluded; some commercial enlargers have an integral dark box so that they can be used in a light room.
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[edit] Principles of operation
A condenser enlarger consists of a light source with mirrored reflector and a condensing lens. Alternatively, a cold light enlarger has a fluorescent light tube masked by translucent glass as its light source. The directional light then passes through a film holder, which may hold sheet or roll stock photographic negatives and transparencies, which have been previously exposed in a camera and developed. Color enlargers often have an adjustable filter mechanism between the light source and the negative for color correction with controls for the amount of cyan, magenta and yellow light reaching the negative. The negative image is then projected through an adjustable iris aperture and focusing lens to a flat surface upon which is mounted the sensitised paper to be exposed. By adusting the ratio of distance from film to lens to the distance from lens to paper, various degrees of enlargement may be obtained, with the physical enlargement ratio limited only by the structure of the enlarger and the size of the paper. The parts of the enlarger includes baseboard, enlarger head, elevation knob, filter holder, negative carrier, glass plate, focus knob, girder scale, timer, bellows, and housing lift.
[edit] Image enlargement limits
The practical amount of enlargement (irrespective of the enlarger structure) will depend upon the grain size of the negative, the sharpness (accuracy) of the both the camera and projector lenses, blur in the negative due to subject motion and camera shake during the exposure of the negative, and the intended viewing distance of the final product. As an example of the intended viewing distance, a 5 by 7 inch image to be viewed in a scrapbook at 18 inches may be unsuitable for use as an 8 by 10 inch image to be hung on a hallway wall to be viewed at the same distance , but usable at a larger 5 feet by seven feet (twelve times larger) on a billboard to be viewed no closer than eighteen feet (twelve times more distant).
[edit] Enlarger physical arrangements
Smaller units are usually mounted with the head pointing downward and adusted up or down to change the size of the image projected onto the enlarger's base, or a work table if the unit is mounted to the wall. Most models consists of the head, or the assembly containing the light source, filters, film holder, focusing system and lens, mounted to a single post, which may have gearing for precise height adjustment. Other models are comprised of a trestle, with the head mounted on crossbars between two or more posts for extra stability. Large horizontal enlarger structures are used when high quality, when large format enlargements are required such as when photographs are taken from aircraft for mapping and taxation purposes.
[edit] Exposing an image
Photographic paper is usually placed into a special holder, called an easel, designed to hold the paper perfectly flat. Some easels are designed with adjustable overlapping flat steel "blades" to crop the image on the paper to the desired size while keeping an unexposed white border about the image. Larger sheets of paper are sometimes placed directly on the table or enlarger base, and held down flat with metal strips.
As the image size is changed it is also necessary to change the focus of the lens, unless the enlarger is equipped with a mechanical linkage to change focus with each adjustment in height, as in Leica's "Autofocus" enlargers. Usually, the enlarger is focused by moving the lens closer to or further from the negative holder by adjusting the length of a light-tight bellows with a geared rack and pinion mechanism.
The enlargement is made by first focusing the image with the lamp on and the lens wide open and the easel empty, usually with the aid of a focus finder. The lamp is turned off, or in some cases, shuttered by a light-tight mechanism. The photo-paper is placed into the easel, and the lens stopped down to a reasonable working aperture. Most enlarging lenses have an optimum range of appertures which yield a flat image which is in focus from corner to corner, which has sufficient depth of field to compensate for the minute focusing and alignment error inherent in even the finest mechanisms but which is sufficiently large to allow reasonably short exposure times - often around f8. The lens is normally stopped down to this aperture and any color correction dialed in, if it's a color print, or the variable-contrast filter selected if using variable-contrast black and white paper. While there are exposure and color meters available for the darkroom, most printers use the judgement of experience and comparative tests to find the optimal settings for each image.
The enlarger's lamp or shutter mechanism is controlled either by an electronic timer, or by the operator, who marks time with a luminescent clock or metronome, shuttering or turning off the lamp when the exposure is complete. Many experienced photographers can accurately count an exposure in their head.
The exposed paper can be developed right away, or placed in a light-tight contaner for later processing.
Digitally-controlled commercial enlargers typically adjust exposure in steps known as printer points; twelve printer points makes a factor of two change in exposure.
[edit] Additional processing
After exposure of the sensitized paper it is then processed in a multi-step chemical process to develop the image and make permanent, or fix, the print. It is especially fascinating to observe the production of black and white prints using the gelatin-silver process, as most black and white sensitized printing materials are not sensitized to red light. It is thus possible to perform all material preparation, image adjustment, exposure, and chemical processing of those printing papers using a red "safe light" for general illumination of the darkroom. Equipment preparation is much easier and the development is similar to watching the development of a polaroid instant print as the image gradually appears before one's eyes. It is also possible to interrupt the process when the desired image value has been obtained by moving the print from a tray with "developer" chemical to a tray with "stop bath" (usually acetic acid, which is essentially common distilled vinegar). After stopping, the print is moved to a tray with a fixative chemical called "hypo" that permanenty preserves the image, and then to a rinse bath, where any remaining chemical traces are removed with water. Finally, if it is desired to obtain a glossy or textured finish to the surface of the prints, they are placed face down on smooth or textured glass or metal plates for drying, otherwise they are hung to dry in the air.
When color prints are to be generated, all exposure and chemical processing must be done in complete darkness except for that provided by the enlarger during actual exposure of the paper.
[edit] Automated print machines
Automated photo print machines comprise the same basic elements and integrate each of the steps outlined above in a single complex machine under operator and computer control. Rather than project directly from the film negative to the print paper, a digital image may first be captured from the negative. This allows the operator or computer to quickly determine adjustments to brightness, contrast, clipping, and other characteristics. The image is then rendered by passing light through negative and a built-in computer controlled enlarger optically projects this image to the paper for final exposure. As a byproduct of the process a compact disk recording may be made of the digital images, although a subsequent print made from these may be quite inferior to an image made from the negative due to digitization noise and lack of dynamic range which are characteristics of the digitizing process. For better images, the negatives may be reprinted using the same automated machine under operator selection of the print to be made. For better quality images the negatives should be reprinted using manually operated equipment as would be found in a specialty photographic store or laboratory. Highest quality images are obtained using several preliminary test images to determine the correct exposure and filter adjustments to obtain an appropriate effect.
[edit] Advantages
The principle advantage of an enlarger is that the print may be made to a different size than the negative. Without an enlarger, only a contact print would be available and large images would require large size negatives and hence very large cameras.
Another advantage of using an enlarger is that it is easy to employ local control of the lightness or darkness of various parts of the print.
Changing the amount of light hitting the print on various areas will change the image density in those areas—local control. A mask with a hole can be used to add extra light to an area "burning", which will have the effect of darkening the regions with additional exposure, while the use of a small wand to reduce the total exposure to a region is called "dodging" and has the effect of lightening the regions with reduced exposure. The mask is moved about to avoid producing a sharp edge at the region boundary. With the controls available it is possible to make significant changes in the mood or emphasis of a photographic print. Similar methods are available with contact printing, but it is more difficult to see the image as it is being manipulated.
The best known master of making art in the darkroom is the famous nature photographer Ansel Adams. Among his books, The Camera, The Negative and The Print are essential reading for those who would like to learn more about printing and enlarging photographs.
As with other photographic printing methods, it is also possible to make composite photographs by overlaying the print with a hand-cut mask, performing an exposure, and then using the inverse of that mask to perform another exposure with a different negative. This is much more difficult to do well using photographic methods than it is now by using the methods of modern digital image manipulation.
[edit] See also
- Contact printer for a non-enlarging method of producing photographic prints.
- Projector for a directory of projector types.
