Empty set

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In mathematics and more specifically set theory, the empty set is the unique set which contains no elements. In axiomatic set theory it is postulated to exist by the axiom of empty set and all finite sets are constructed from it. The empty set is also sometimes called the null set, but because null set means something else in measure theory, that term is generally avoided in current work.

Various possible properties of sets are trivially true for the empty set.

Contents 1 Notation 2 Properties 3 Common problems 4 Axiomatic set theory 5 Does it exist or is it necessary? 6 Operations on the empty set 7 Bounds 8 The empty set and zero 9 Category theory 10 Use in linguistics 11 References

[edit] Notation

The empty set is denoted by either one of the symbols "" or "", derived from the letter Ø in the Danish and Norwegian alphabet, introduced by the Bourbaki group (specifically André Weil) in 1939 [1]. Another common notation for the empty set is "{}".

[edit] Properties

(Here we use mathematical symbols.)

• For any set A, the empty set is a subset of A:

  ∀A: ∅ ⊆ A

• For any set A, the union of A with the empty set is A:

  ∀A: A ∪ ∅ = A

• For any set A, the intersection of A with the empty set is the empty set:

  ∀A: A ∩ ∅ = ∅

• For any set A, the Cartesian product of A and the empty set is empty:

  ∀A: A × ∅ = ∅

• The only subset of the empty set is the empty set itself:

  ∀A: A ⊆ ∅ ⇒ A = ∅

• The number of elements of the empty set (that is its cardinality) is zero; in particular, the empty set is finite:

  |∅| = 0

• For any property:
  • for every element of ∅ the property holds (vacuous truth)
  • there is no element of ∅ for which the property holds
• Conversely: if, for some property, the following two statements hold:
  • for every element of V the property holds
  • there is no element of V for which the property holds

then V = ∅

Mathematicians speak of "the empty set" rather than "an empty set". In set theory, two sets are equal if they have the same elements; therefore there can be only one set with no elements.

Considered as a subset of the real number line (or more generally any topological space), the empty set is both closed and open. All its boundary points (of which there are none) are in the empty set, and the set is therefore closed; while for every one of its points (of which there are again none), there is an open neighbourhood in the empty set, and the set is therefore open. Moreover, the empty set is a compact set by the fact that every finite set is compact.

The closure of the empty set is empty. This is known as "preservation of nullary unions."

[edit] Common problems

The empty set is not the same thing as nothing; it is a set with nothing inside it, and a set is something. This often causes difficulty among those who first encounter it. It may be helpful to think of a set as a bag containing its elements; an empty bag may be empty, but the bag itself certainly exists.

By the definition of subset, the empty set is a subset of any set A, as every element x of {} belongs to A. If it is not true that every element of {} is in A, there must be at least one element of {} that is not present in A. Since there are no elements of {} at all, there is no element of {} that is not in A, leading us to conclude that every element of {} is in A and that {} is a subset of A. Any statement that begins "for every element of {}" is not making any substantive claim; it is a vacuous truth. This is often paraphrased as "everything is true of the elements of the empty set."

[edit] Axiomatic set theory

In the axiomatization of set theory known as Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory, the existence of the empty set is assured by the axiom of empty set. The uniqueness of the empty set follows from the axiom of extensionality.

Any axiom that states the existence of any set will imply the axiom of empty set, using the axiom schema of separation. For example, if A is a set then the axiom schema of separation allows the construction of the set B = {x in A | x ≠ x}, which can be defined to be the empty set.

[edit] Does it exist or is it necessary?

While the empty set is a standard and universally accepted concept in mathematics, some philosophers and logicians continue to debate its meaning and usefulness.

Jonathan Lowe has argued that while the idea "was undoubtedly an important landmark in the history of mathematics, … we should not assume that its utility in calculation is dependent upon its actually denoting some object." It is not clear that such an idea makes sense. "All that we are ever informed about the empty set is that it (1) is a set, (2) has no members, and (3) is unique amongst sets in having no members. However, there are very many things that 'have no members', in the set-theoretical sense—namely, all non-sets. It is perfectly clear why these things have no members, for they are not sets. What is unclear is how there can be, uniquely amongst sets, a set which has no members. We cannot conjure such an entity into existence by mere stipulation."^{[citation needed]}

In "To be is to be the value of a variable…", Journal of Philosophy, 1984 (reprinted in his book Logic, Logic and Logic), the late George Boolos has argued that we can go a long way just by quantifying plurally over individuals, without reifying sets as singular entities having other entities as members.^{[citation needed]}

In a recent book Tom McKay has disparaged the "singularist" assumption that natural expressions using plurals can be analysed using plural surrogates, such as signs for sets. He argues for an anti-singularist theory which differs from set theory in that there is no analogue of the empty set, and there is just one relation, among, that is an analogue of both the membership and the subset relation.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Operations on the empty set

Operations performed on the empty set (as a set of things to be operated upon) can also be confusing. (Such operations are nullary operations.) For example, the sum of the elements of the empty set is zero, but the product of the elements of the empty set is one (see empty product). This may seem odd, since there are no elements of the empty set, so how could it matter whether they are added or multiplied (since “they” do not exist)? Ultimately, the results of these operations say more about the operation in question than about the empty set. For instance, notice that zero is the identity element for addition, and one is the identity element for multiplication.

[edit] Bounds

Since the empty set has no members, when it is considered as a subset of any ordered set, then any member of that set will be an upper bound and lower bound for the empty set. For example, when considered as a subset of the real numbers, with its usual ordering, represented by the real number line, every real number is both an upper and lower bound for the empty set. When considered as a subset of the extended reals formed by adding two "numbers" or "points" to the real numbers, namely negative infinity, denoted which is defined to be less than every other extended real number, and positive infinity, denoted which is defined to be greater than every other extended real number, then:

and

That is, the least upper bound (sup or supremum) of the empty set is negative infinity, while the greatest lower bound (inf or infimum) is positive infinity. By analogy with the above, in the domain of the extended reals, negative infinity is the identity element for the maximum and supremum operators, while positive infinity is the identity element for minimum and infimum.

[edit] The empty set and zero

It was mentioned earlier that the empty set has zero elements, or that its cardinality is zero. The connection between the two concepts goes further however: in the standard set-theoretic definition of natural numbers, zero is defined as the empty set.

[edit] Category theory

If A is a set, then there exists precisely one function f from {} to A, the empty function. As a result, the empty set is the unique initial object of the category of sets and functions.

The empty set can be turned into a topological space in just one way (by defining the empty set to be open); this empty topological space is the unique initial object in the category of topological spaces with continuous maps.

[edit] Use in linguistics

The empty set is also used in linguistics and particularly in language-teaching to denote a natural form (also colloquially named the dictionary form), which is generally the nominative singular for languages with declensions. It is used to emphasise that nothing should be added to the noun. However, this type of empty set is usually written with the same size as the other letters and so looks much more like a ø than like a ∅.

The empty set symbol is sometimes used in natural language syntax and morphology to represent morphemes that are not pronounced.

Set theory generally is a basic tool in formal semantics, so the empty set plays an important role in linguistics in this respect as well.

For denoting important spaces, see also, open box (␣) and \verbatim in LaTeX.

[edit] References

• Paul Halmos, Naive set theory. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1960. Reprinted by Springer-Verlag, New York, 1974. ISBN 0-387-90092-6 (Springer-Verlag edition).
• Jech, Thomas, 2003. Set Theory: The Third Millennium Edition, Revised and Expanded. Springer. ISBN 3-540-44085-2.