Eighty Years' War

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Eighty Years' War
Relief of Leiden (1574), Inundated meadows allow the Dutch fleet access to the Spanish infantry positions.
Date 1568 - 1648 Location The Low Countries (worldwide colonial warfare) Result Treaty of Westphalia; Independence of the northern provinces
Combatants
Dutch rebels	Spanish Empire

Eighty Years' War

Oosterweel – Rheindalen – Heiligerlee – Jemmingen – Jodoigne – Brielle – Haarlem – Flushing – Borsele – Zuiderzee – Alkmaar – Leiden – Reimerswaal – Mookerheyde – Gembloux – Maastricht – 1st Breda – Punta Delgada – Antwerp – Boksum – Zutphen – 1st Bergen op Zoom – Gravelines – 2nd Breda – Turnhout – Nieuwpoort – Ostend – Sluys – Gibraltar – 2nd Bergen op Zoom –3rd Breda – Bay of Matanzas – 's-Hertogenbosch – Maastricht – 4th Breda – Kallo – The Downs – Hulst – Puerto de Cavite

The Eighty Years' War, or Dutch Revolt (1568^[1]–1648), was the revolt of the Seventeen Provinces in the Netherlands against the Spanish (Habsburg) Empire.

Spain was initially successful in suppressing the rebellion. In 1572, however, the rebels captured Brielle and the rebellion resurged. The northern provinces became independent first de facto, and in 1648 officially. During the revolt, The United Provinces of the Netherlands or Dutch Republic rapidly grew to become a world power through its merchant shipping and experienced a period of economic, scientific, and cultural growth.

The Southern Netherlands (situated in modern-day Belgium, Luxembourg and Northern France) remained under Spanish rule. The continuous repression by the Spanish in the south caused many of its financial, intellectual, and cultural elite to flee north, contributing in no small measure to the success of the Dutch Republic. Additionally, by the end of the war in 1648 large areas of the Southern Netherlands had been lost to France.

Contents 1 Background 1.1 Taxation 1.2 Protestantism 1.3 Centralization 2 Initial stages (1555-1572) 2.1 Prelude to the rebellion (1555-1568) 2.2 Nobility in opposition 2.3 1566 - Iconoclasm and repression 2.4 William of Orange 3 Resurgence (1572–1585) 3.1 Pacification of Ghent 3.2 Unions of Arras and Utrecht 3.3 Oath of Abjuration 3.4 The fall of Antwerp 4 De facto independence of the north (1585–1609) 5 Twelve Years' Truce (1609–1621) 6 Final stages (1621–1648) 6.1 War recommences 6.2 Colonial theatre 6.3 From war to peace 6.4 Peace 7 Aftermath 7.1 Nature of the war 7.2 Effect on the Low Countries 7.3 Effect on the Spanish Empire 7.4 Political implications in Europe 8 See also 9 External links 10 Further reading 11 Notes and References

[edit] Background

Dutch History
The Dutch Republic
1584-1795
Eighty Years' War
United Provinces
The Golden Age
The Batavian revolution
[Edit]

In a series of marriages and conquests, a succession of dukes of Burgundy expanded their original duchy to form the Burgundian Empire, which included the Seventeen Provinces^[2]. Although Burgundy itself had been lost to France in 1477, the Burgundian empire was still at the height of its power when Charles V was born in Ghent. He was raised in the Netherlands and spoke fluent Dutch, French and Spanish, and some German^[3]. In 1506 he became lord of the Burgundian states, among which were the Netherlands. Subsequently, in 1516, he inherited several titles, including the combined kingdoms of Aragon, and Castile and Leon which had become a worldwide empire with the Spanish colonization of the Americas. In 1519 he became ruler of the Habsburg empire, and he gained the title Holy Roman Emperor in 1530.

[edit] Taxation

Flanders had long been a very wealthy region, and had been coveted by the French kings for a long time. The other Netherlands had also grown into wealthy and entrepreneurial regions within the Habsburg empire^[4]. Under Charles V the Habsburg empire became a worldwide empire with large American and European territories. The latter were, however, distributed throughout Europe. Control and defence of which were hampered by the disparation of the territories and huge length of its borders. This large realm was almost continuously at war with its neighbours in its European heartlands: most notably against France in the Italian Wars and against the Turks in the Mediterranean Sea. Further wars were fought against Protestant princes in Germany^{[citation needed]}. The Netherlands paid heavy taxes to fund these wars, but perceived them as unnecessary and sometimes downright harmful, because they were directed against their most important trading partners^{[citation needed]}. Part of the shifting balance of power in the late middle ages, many of the Dutch nobles by now were not traditional aristocrats, but instead stemmed from families that had risen in status over the last centuries through trade and finance^{[citation needed]}. As their new-found power was still heavily based on this entrepreneurial background, they became critics of the Spanish kings because of their wars and taxes, which put their fortunes at risk.

[edit] Protestantism

During the 16th century, Protestantism rapidly gained ground in northern Europe. The Netherlands were not predominantly Protestant in the 1560s, but Protestants constituted a significant minority and were tolerated by local authorities. In a society dependent on trade, freedom and tolerance were considered essential. Nevertheless, Charles V, and later Philip II, felt it was their duty to fight Protestantism, which they considered heresy. The harsh measures led to increasing grievances in the Netherlands, where the local governments had embarked on a course of peaceful coexistence. In the second half of the century, the situation escalated. Philip sent troops and the relentless Spanish repression turned the initial revolt into a fight for complete independence.

The Dutch compared their humble Calvinist values favorably against the luxurious habits of Spain’s Catholic nobility. The Calvinist movement emphasized Christian virtues of modesty, cleanliness, frugality, and hard work. Symbolic stories from the New Testament, featuring fishermen, shipbuilders, and other simple occupations, resonated among the Dutch. The Calvinist elements of the rebellion represented a moral challenge to the Spanish Empire.

[edit] Centralization

In the late middle ages, the merchant class in the cities had been on the rise. Many of the cities became increasingly independent of their original local noble liège lords, and were becoming quasi city states. Against this the collection of the scattered aristocratic realms in personal unions under, for example, the Burgundy dukes, allocated more than ever to the high nobility and their governors. By the fifteenth century, Brussels had thus become the de facto capital of the Seventeen Provinces.

However, dating back to the middle ages the districts of the Netherlands, represented by its nobility and the wealthy merchant cities still had a large measure of autonomy. Charles V and Philip II set out to improve the management of the empire by increasing the authority of the central government in matters like law and taxes. The nobility and merchants alike were very suspicious of this. An example of this is the takeover of power in the city of Utrecht in 1528 when Charles V supplanted the council of guild masters governing the city by a regent, and commanded the construction of the heavily armed castle of Vredenburg to control the citizens^[5].

[edit] Initial stages (1555-1572)

[edit] Prelude to the rebellion (1555-1568)

In 1556 Charles passed on his throne to his son Philip II of Spain^[6]. Charles, despite his harsh actions, had been seen as a ruler empathetic to the needs of the Netherlands. Philip, on the other hand, was raised in Spain and spoke neither Dutch nor French. During Philip's reign, tensions flared in the Netherlands over heavy taxation, suppression of Protestantism, and centralisation efforts. The growing conflict would reach a boiling point and would lead ultimately to the war of independence.

[edit] Nobility in opposition

In an effort to build a stable and trustworthy government of the Netherlands Philip appointed several members of the high nobility of the Netherlands to the States General; the governing body of the seventeen Netherlands. He put his confidante Granvelle as head of the States General. Furthermore, he appointed Margaret of Parma as governor of the Netherlands ^[6]. However already in 1558 the states started to contradict Philip’s wishes, by objecting to his tax proposals and demanding the withdrawal of Spanish troops. Subsequent reforms met with much opposition, which was mainly directed at Granvelle. Petitions to king Philip by the high nobility went unanswered. Some of the most influential nobles, including William of Orange, the count of Egmont and the count of Horne, withdrew from the States General until Philip recalled Granvelle^[6]. In late 1564, the nobles had noticed the growing power of the reformation and urged Philip to come up with realistic measures to prevent violence. Philip answered that sterner oppression could be the only answer. Subsequently Egmont, Horne, Orange withdrew once more from the States General and Bergen and Meghem resigned their Stadholdership^[6]. In the mean while, the religious protests were increasing in spite of increased oppression. In 1566, a league of about 400 members of the high nobility presented a petition to the governor Margaret of Parma, to suspend persecution until the rest had returned. Count Berlaymont called the presentation of this petition an act of beggars (geuzen) a name taken up in honour by the petitioners. The petition was sent on to Philip for a final verdict^[6].

[edit] 1566 - Iconoclasm and repression

The atmosphere in the Netherlands was tense due to the rebellion preaching of Calvinist leaders, and hunger after bad harvests. Early August 1566, a mob stormed the church of Hondschoote in Flanders (now in Northern France)^[7]. This relatively small incident spread North and led to a massive iconoclastic movement by Calvinists, who stormed churches to destroy statues and images of Catholic saints all over the Netherlands. According to the Calvinists, these statues represented worship of idols^[6]. Nobody stepped in to rein in the vandalism of the Calvinists. Even before he answered the petition by the nobles, Philip had lost control in the troublesome Netherlands. He saw no other option than to send an army to suppress the rebellion. In 1567, Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, marched into Brussels at the head of 10,000 troops^[7].

Alba took harsh measures and rapidly established a special court (Raad van Beroerten or council of upheavals) to judge anyone who opposed the king. No one, not even high nobility who had been pleading for less harsh measures, was safe. The most prominent persons judged by the council were the counts of Egmont and Horne, who were arrested for high treason, condemned, and a year later decapitated on the Grand Place in Brussels. Egmont and Horne had been Catholic nobles who were loyal to the King of Spain until their death. The reason for their execution was that Alba considered they had been treasonous to the king in their tolerance to Protestantism. Their death, ordered by a Spanish noble, rather than a local court, provoked outrage throughout the Netherlands. Over one thousand people were executed in the following months.^[3] The large number of executions led the court to be nicknamed the "Blood Court" in the Netherlands, and Alba to be called the "iron duke". Rather than pacifying the Netherlands, these measures helped to fuel the unrest.

[edit] William of Orange

Main article: William the Silent

William I of Orange was stadtholder of the provinces Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht, and Margrave of Antwerp; and the most influential noble in the States General who had signed the petition. After the arrival of Alba, to prevent arrest, as happened to Egmont and Horne, he fled from the Burgundian Empire to the lands ruled by his wife's father — the Count-Elector of Saxony. All his lands and titles in the Netherlands were forfeited by the Spanish king and he was branded an outlaw.

In 1568, William returned to try and drive the highly unpopular Duke of Alba from Brussels. He did not see this as an act of treason against the king (Philip II), but as an option for appeasement with the Spanish king. William's actions, disposing of ill-informed councillors like Alba, would allow the king to take up his legal place once more. This view is reflected in today's Dutch national anthem, the Wilhelmus, in which the last lines of the first stanza read: den koning van Hispanje heb ik altijd geëerd (I have always honoured the king of Spain). The Battle of Rheindalen, on 23 April 1568, near Roermond is often seen as the unofficial start of the Eighty Years' War. The Battle of Heiligerlee, commonly regarded as the beginning of the war, was fought on 23 May 1568.

Soon after this battle, many cities were taken over by the rebel movement. However, the initial successes were in large part due to the drain on the garrisons caused by the simultaneous war that Spain was fighting against the Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean Sea. After their victory in the Battle of Lepanto (1571), the Spanish were able to send more troops to the Netherlands and suppress the rebellion. William of Orange stayed at large and was from then on seen as the leader of the rebellion. When the Netherlands rebelled once more he moved his court back to the Netherlands; to Delft, as the ancestral lands of Orange in Breda remained occupied by the Spanish. Delft remained William's base of operations until his assassination by Balthasar Gérard in 1584.

[edit] Resurgence (1572–1585)

By 1572 the Spanish had mostly suppressed the rebellion throughout the Netherlands. Strategic mistakes by the Dutch, and lack of stamina among the general public after the initial outburst of anger, contributed to this. However, Alba's proposal to introduce a new tax, the "tenth penny", aroused great protest from both Catholics and Protestants, and support for the rebels grew once more. With the capture of Brielle by the Sea Beggars on April 1, 1572, the rebels had gained a foothold, and more importantly a token victory in the north. This was a sign for Protestants all over the Low Countries to rebel once more.^[3]

Most of the important cities in the province of Holland declared loyalty to the rebels. A notable exception being Amsterdam, which remained a loyal Catholic city until 1578. William of Orange was put at the head of the revolt. The influence of the rebels rapidly growing in the northern provinces brought the war into a second and more decisive phase.

[edit] Pacification of Ghent

Being unable to deal with the rebellion, Alba was replaced in 1573 by Luis de Requesens and a new policy of moderation was attempted. Spain, however, had to declare bankruptcy in 1575. De Requesens had not managed to broker a policy acceptable to both the Spanish king and the Netherlands when he died in early 1576. The inability to pay the Spanish soldiers endured, leading to numerous mutinies and in November 1576 troops sacked Antwerp at the cost of some 8,000 lives. This so-called "Spanish Fury" strengthened the resolve of the rebels in the 17 provinces to take fate into their own hands.

The Netherlands negotiated an internal treaty, the Pacification of Ghent, in which the provinces agreed to religious tolerance and pledged to fight together against the Spanish forces. However, some religious hostilities continued and Spain, aided by shipments of bullion from the New World, was able to send a new army under Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza^[3].

[edit] Unions of Arras and Utrecht

On January 6, 1579, prompted by the new Spanish governor Alexander Farnese (Duke of Parma) and upset by aggressive Calvinism of the Northern States, some of the Southern States (located in what is now France and Wallonia) signed the Union of Arras (Atrecht), expressing their loyalty to the Spanish king. This meant the end of the cooperation aimed at a level of independence among the 17 Netherlands, agreed upon only three years previously in the pacification of Ghent.

In response to the union of Arras, William united the northern states of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders and the province of Groningen in the Union of Utrecht on January 23, 1579. Southern cities like Bruges, Ghent, Brussels and Antwerp joined the Union of Utrecht. Effectively, the 17 provinces were now divided into a group loyal to the Spanish king, and a group in rebellion.

[edit] Oath of Abjuration

In the late 16th century, it was not conceivable that a country could be governed by anyone but high nobility, if not a king, so the States General tried to find a suitable replacement for Philip. The Protestant Queen of England, Elizabeth I seemed the obvious choice to be protector of the Netherlands. Elizabeth, however, did not want to provoke Philip any more than necessary and declined the offer. Subsequently the States offered the younger brother of the French king, the Duke of Anjou, as sovereign ruler. Anjou accepted on the condition that the Netherlands officially denounce any loyalty to Philip. In 1581, the Oath of Abjuration was issued, in which the Netherlands proclaimed that the king of Spain had not upheld his responsibilities to the Netherlands population and would therefore no longer be accepted as rightful king. Anjou was, however, deeply distrusted by the population and he became increasingly bothered by the limited influence the States were willing to allow him. After some effort to increase his power by military action against the uncooperative cities, Anjou left the Netherlands in 1583.

Elizabeth was now offered the sovereignty of the Netherlands, but she declined. All options for foreign royalty being exhausted, the civilian body States General eventually decided to rule as a republican body instead.

[edit] The fall of Antwerp

Immediately after the oath of abjuration, Spain sent a new army to recapture the United Provinces. Over the following years, Parma reconquered the major part of Flanders and Brabant, as well as large parts of the northeastern provinces. The Roman Catholic religion was restored in much of this area. By 1585, Antwerp — the largest city in the Low Countries at the time — fell into his hands, which caused over half its population to flee to the north (see also Siege of Antwerp). Between 1565 and 1590, the population of Antwerp plummeted from 105,000 inhabitants to 40,000.

On July 10, 1584, William I was assassinated by a supporter of Philip II. He would be succeeded as leader of the rebellion by his son Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange.

The Netherlands were split into an independent northern part, while the southern part remained under Spanish control. Due to the almost uninterrupted rule of the Calvinist-dominated separatists, most of the population of the northern provinces became converted to Protestantism over the next decades. The south, under Spanish rule, remained a Catholic stronghold; most of its Protestants fled to the north. Spain retained a large military presence in the south, where it could also be used against France.

[edit] De facto independence of the north (1585–1609)

With the war going against them, the United Provinces had sought help from the kingdoms of France and England. The Dutch had even offered each monarch the crown of the Netherlands, but both had declined.

While England had unofficially been supporting the Dutch for years, Elizabeth now decided to intervene directly. In 1585, under the Treaty of Nonsuch, Elizabeth I sent the Earl of Leicester to take the rule as lord-regent, with 5,000 to 6,000 troops, including 1,000 cavalry. The Earl of Leicester proved to be a poor commander, and also did not understand the sensitive trade arrangements between the Dutch regents and the Spanish. Within a year of his arrival, he had lost his public support. Leicester returned to England, after which the States-General, being unable to find any other suitable regent, appointed Maurice of Orange (William's son), at the age of 20, to the position of Captain General of the Dutch army in 1587. This desperate appointment soon proved to be salvation of the pressured republic.

The borders of the present-day Netherlands were largely defined by the campaigns of Maurice of Orange. The Dutch successes owed not only to his tactical skill but also to the financial burden Spain incurred replacing ships lost in the disastrous campaign of the Spanish Armada in 1588, and the need to refit its navy to recover control of the sea after the subsequent English counter attack. In 1595, when Henry IV of France declared war against Spain, the Spanish government declared bankruptcy again. However, by regaining control of the sea, Spain was able to greatly increase its supply of gold and silver from the Americas, which allowed it to increase military pressure on England and France.

Under financial and military pressure, in 1598, Philip ceded the Netherlands to his favorite daughter Isabella and to her husband, Philip's nephew Archduke Albert of Austria, following the conclusion of the Treaty of Vervins with France. By that time Maurice was engaged in conquering important cities in the Netherlands. Starting with the important fortification of Bergen op Zoom (1588), Maurice conquered Breda (1590), Zutphen, Deventer, Delfzijl and Nijmegen (1591), Steenwijk, Coevorden (1592) Geertruidenberg (1593) Groningen (1594) Grol, Enschede, Ootmarsum, Oldenzaal (1597) and Grave (1602)^[8]. As this campaign was restricted to the border areas of the current Netherlands, the heartland of Holland remained at peace, during which time it moved into its Golden age.

By now, it had become clear that Spanish control of the Southern Netherlands was strong. However, control over Zeeland meant that the Northern Netherlands could control and close the estuary of the Scheldt, the entry to the sea for the important port of Antwerp. The port of Amsterdam benefited greatly from the blockade of the port of Antwerp, to the extent that merchants in the North began to question the desirability of reconquering the South. A campaign to control the Southern provinces' coast region was launched against Maurice's advice in 1600. Although portrayed as a liberation of the Southern Netherlands, the campaign was chiefly aimed at eliminating the threat to Dutch trade posed by the Spanish-supported Dunkirker Raiders. The Spanish strengthened their positions along the coast, leading to the Battle of Nieuwpoort.

Although the States-General army won great acclaim for itself and its commander by inflicting a then-surprising defeat of a Spanish army in open battle, Maurice halted the march on Dunkirk and returned to the Northern Provinces. Maurice never forgave the regents, led by van Oldenbarneveld, for being sent on this mission. By now the division of the Netherlands into separate states had become almost inevitable. With the failure to eliminate the Dunkirk threat to trade, the states decided to build up their navy to protect sea trade, which had greatly increased through the creation of the Dutch East Indies Company in 1602. The strengthened Dutch fleets would prove to be a formidable force, hampering Spain's naval ambitions thereafter.

[edit] Twelve Years' Truce (1609–1621)

Main article: Twelve Years' Truce

1609 saw the start of a ceasefire, afterwards called the Twelve Years' Truce, between the United Provinces and the Spanish controlled southern states, mediated by France and England at The Hague. It was during this ceasefire the Dutch made great efforts to build their navy, which was later to have a crucial bearing on the course of the war.

During the Truce, two factions emerged in the Dutch camp, along political and religious lines. On one side were the Arminians, whose prominent supporters included Johan van Oldenbarnevelt and Hugo Grotius^[9]. They tended to be well-to-do merchants who accepted a less strict interpretation of the Bible than did classical Calvinists. They were opposed by the more radical Gomarists, who supported the ever-popular Prince Maurice^{[citation needed]}. In 1617 the conflict escalated when republicans pushed the "Sharp Resolution", allowing the cities to take measures against the Gomarists. Prince Maurice accused van Oldenbarnevelt of treason, had him arrested, and in 1619, executed. Hugo Grotius fled the country after escaping from imprisonment in Castle Loevestein^[9].

[edit] Final stages (1621–1648)

[edit] War recommences

Negotiations for a permanent peace went on throughout the truce. Two major issues could not be resolved. First, the Spanish demand for religious freedom of Catholics in Northern Netherlands was countered by a Dutch demand for a similar religious freedom for Protestants in the Southern Netherlands. Second, there was a growing disagreement over the trade routes to the different colonies (in the Far East and the Americas) which could not be resolved. The Spanish made one last effort to reconquer the North, and the Dutch used their navy to enlarge their colonial trade routes to the detriment of Spain. The war was on once more - and crucially, merging with the wider Thirty Years' War.

In 1622, a Spanish attack on the important fortress town of Bergen op Zoom was repelled. However, in 1625 Maurice died while the Spanish laid siege to the city of Breda. The Spanish commander Ambrosio Spinola succeeded in conquering the city of Breda (an episode immortalized by the Spanish painter Velázquez in his famous painting "Las Lanzas"). After that victory, however, the tide changed definitively in favour of the Dutch Republic. Maurice's half-brother, Frederick Henry had succeeded his brother and took command of the army. Frederick Henry conquered the pivotal fortified city of 's-Hertogenbosch in 1629. This town, largest in the northern part of Brabant, had been considered to be impregnable from attack. Its loss was a serious blow to the Spanish.

In 1632, Frederick Henry captured Venlo, Roermond and Maastricht during his famous "March along the Meuse" in a pincer move to prepare for the conquest of the major cities of Flanders. Attempts in the next years to attack Antwerp and Brussels failed, however. The Dutch were disappointed by the lack of support they received from the Flemish population. This was mainly because of the pillaging of Tienen and the new generation that had been raised in Flanders and Brabant, that had been thoroughly reconverted to Roman Catholicism and now distrusted the Calvinist Dutch even more than it loathed the Spanish occupants.

[edit] Colonial theatre

As the European countries were starting to build their empires, the war between the countries extended to colonies as well. Battles for profitable colonies were fought as far away as Macao, East Indies, Ceylon, Formosa (Taiwan), the Philippines, Brazil, and others. The most important of these conflicts would become known as the Dutch-Portuguese War. The Dutch carved out a trading empire all over the world, using their dominance at sea to great advantage. The Dutch East India Company was founded to administrate all Dutch trade with the East, while the Dutch West India Company did the same for the West.

In the Western colonies, the Dutch States General mostly restricted itself to supporting privateering by their captains in the Caribbean to drain the Spanish coffers, and to fill their own. The most successful of these raids was the capture of the larger part of the Spanish treasure fleet by Piet Hein in 1628; which allowed Frederick Henry to finance the siege of 's Hertogenbosch; and seriously troubled Spanish payments of troops. But attempts were also made to conquer existing colonies or found new ones in Brazil, North America and Africa. Most of these would be only partially or temporarily successful.^[10]

In the East the activities led to the conquest of many profitable trading colonies, a major factor in bringing about the Dutch Golden Age.^[11]

[edit] From war to peace

In 1639, Spain sent an armada bound for Flanders, carrying 20,000 troops to assist in a last large scale attempt to defeat the northern "rebels". The armada was decisively defeated by Lieutenant-Admiral Maarten Tromp in the Battle of the Downs. This victory had historic consequences far beyond the Eighty Years' War as it marked the end of Spain as the dominant sea power.

An alliance with France changed the balance of power. The Republic could now hope to reconquer the Southern Netherlands. However, this would not mean that they would become a part of the Netherlands, but that they would be divided among the victors, resulting in a powerful French state bordering on the Republic. Furthermore it would mean that the port of Antwerp would most likely no longer be blockaded and might become serious competition for Amsterdam. With the Thirty Years' War decided, there was also no longer any need to fight on in order to support fellow Protestant nations. As a result, the decision was made to end the war.^[12]

[edit] Peace

Main article: Peace of Westphalia

On January 30, 1648, the war ended with the Treaty of Münster between Spain and the Netherlands. This treaty was part of the European scale Peace of Westphalia that also ended the Thirty Years' War. In the treaty, the power balance within the Holy Roman Empire was readjusted to the actual geopolitical reality. This meant that de facto the Dutch Republic was recognised as an independent state and retained control over the territories that were conquered in the later stages of the war^[13]. The new republic consisted of seven provinces: Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders, Overijssel, Friesland and Groningen. Each province was governed by its local Provincial States and by a stadtholder. In theory, each stadtholder was elected and subordinate to the States-General. However, the princes of Orange-Nassau, beginning with William I of Orange, became de facto hereditary stadtholders in Holland and Zeeland. In practice they usually became stadtholder of the other provinces as well. A constant power struggle, which already had shown its precursor during the Twelve year's Truce, emerged between the Orangists, who supported the stadtholders, and the Regent's supporters.

The border states, parts of Flanders, Brabant and Limburg that were conquered by the Dutch in the final stages of the war, were to be federally governed by the States-General. The so called Generality Lands (Generaliteitslanden), which consisted of Staats-Brabant (present North Brabant), Staats-Vlaanderen (present Zeeuws-Vlaanderen) and Staats-Limburg (around Maastricht).

The peace would not be long-lived as the newly emerged world powers: the Republic of the Netherlands and the Commonwealth of England would start their first war in 1652, only four years after the peace was signed.

[edit] Aftermath

[edit] Nature of the war

The Eighty Years' War began with a series of classical battles mostly fought by mercenaries, as was typical of the time. While successes for both parties were limited, costs were high. As the revolt and its suppression centered largely around issues of religious freedom and taxation, the conflict necessarily involved not only soldiers but also civilians at all levels of society. This may be one reason for the resolve and subsequent successes of the Dutch rebels in defending cities. Another factor was the fact that a few cities were sacked after having surrendered. Given the involvement of all sectors of Dutch society in the conflict, a more-or-less organized, irregular army emerged alongside the regular forces. Among these were the geuzen (from the French word "gueux" meaning "beggars"), who waged a guerrilla war against Spanish interests. Especially at sea, geuzen troops were effective agents of the Dutch cause.

There were very few pitched battles where armies met in the field. Most battles were sieges, as was typical of the era, resulting in protracted and expensive use of the military forces available. The Dutch had fortified most of their cities and even many smaller towns in accordance with the most modern views of the time. Sometimes these sieges were broken off when the enemy threatened to attack the besieging army.

In the later stages, Maurice raised a professional standing army that was even paid when no hostilities were taking place, a radical innovation in that time and part of the Military Revolution. This ensured him of loyal soldiers, who were trained in cooperating among each other and were intimately familiar with the doctrines of their commanders and were capable of carrying out complicated manoeuvres.

[edit] Effect on the Low Countries

In the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549, Charles V established the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands as an entity separate from France, Burgundy or the Holy Roman Empire. The Netherlands at this point were among the wealthiest regions in Europe, and an important center of trade, finance and art. The Eighty Years' War introduced a sharp breach in the region, with the Dutch Republic (the present-day Netherlands) growing into a world power (see Dutch Golden Age), and the Southern Netherlands (more or less present-day Belgium) losing all economic and cultural significance for centuries to come.

Politically, a unique situation had emerged in the Netherlands where a republican body (the States General) ruled, but where a (increasingly hereditary) noble function of Stadtholder was occupied by the house of Orange-Nassau. This division of power prevented large scale fighting between nobility and civilians as happened in the English Civil War. The frictions between the civil and noble fractions, that already started in the twelve years' truce, were numerous and would finally lead to an outburst with the French supported Batavian Republic, where Dutch bourgeoisie hoped to get rid of the increasing self-esteem in the nobility once and for all. However, in a dramatic resurgence of nobility after the Napoleonic era the republic would be abandoned in favor of the foundation of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. Thus, the oldest republic of Europe was turned into a monarchy, which it still is today.

[edit] Effect on the Spanish Empire

The conquest of various American territories made Spain the leading European power of the 16th century. This brought them into continuous conflict with France and the emerging power that was England. In addition, the deeply religious monarchs Charles V and Philip II saw a role for themselves as protectors of the Catholic faith against Islam in the Mediterranean and against Protestantism in northern Europe. This meant the Spanish Empire was almost continuously at war. Of all these conflicts, the Eighty Years' War was the most prolonged and had a major effect on the Spanish finances and the morale of the Spanish people, who saw taxes increase and soldiers not returning, with little successes to balance the scales. The Spanish government had to declare several bankruptcies. The Spanish population increasingly questioned the necessity of the war in the Netherlands and even the necessity of the Empire in general. The loss of Portugal in 1640 and the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, ending the war were the first signs that the role of the Spanish Empire in Europe was declining.

[edit] Political implications in Europe

The Dutch revolt against their lawful king, most obviously illustrated in the oath of abjuration (1581), implied that a king could be disposed by the population if there was agreement that he did not fulfill his God given responsibility and thus challenged the concept of a divine right of kings. Eventually this led to the Dutch Republic. The acceptance of a non-monarchic country by the other European powers in 1648 spread across Europe, fueling resistance against the divine power of Kings. Thus the Dutch rebellion can be seen as a precursor of the English Civil War (1642-1651) and the French Revolution (1789-1799), where monarchs with power based on their divine right were disposed of. As such, the Dutch revolt is the predecessor of liberalism in modern governments.

[edit] See also

• Synod of Dordrecht
• Union of Delft

[edit] External links

• The Dutch Revolt site of Leiden University; http://dutchrevolt.leidenuniv.nl/ (also in English)
• The canon of Dutch history has several topics related to the Eighty Years' War; http://entoen.nu/ (also in English)

[edit] Further reading

• The works of John Lothrop Motley (1814-1877) give an old but very detailed account of the Dutch republic in this time - Works by John Lothrop Motley at Project Gutenberg (free E-texts)
• Geyl, Pieter. (1932), The Revolt of the Netherlands, 1555-1609. Williams & Norgate, UK.
• Geyl, Pieter. (1936), The Netherlands Divided, 1609-1648. Williams & Norgate, UK.
• Israel, Jonathan I. (1998), The Dutch Republic. Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477-1806, Clarendon Press, Oxford, ISBN 0-19-820734-4.
• Parker, Geoffrey (1977), The Dutch revolt, Penguin books, London

[edit] Notes and References