Early life of Jan Smuts

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

You have new messages (last change).
Jan Smuts
Jan Smuts

Jan Christian Smuts (aka Jan Christiaan Smuts), OM, CH, ED, KC, FRS (May 24, 1870 – September 11, 1950) was a prominent South African and Commonwealth statesman, military leader, and philosopher. He served as a Boer General during the Boer War, a British General during the First World War and was appointed Field Marshal by King George VI during the Second World War. In addition to various cabinet appointments, he served as Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa from 1919 until 1924 and from 1939 until 1948. From 1917 to 1919 he was one of five members of the British War Cabinet, helping to create the Royal Air Force. He played a leading part in the post-war settlements at the end of both world wars, making significant contributions towards the creation of the League of Nations and the United Nations. He did much to redefine the relationship between Britain and the Dominions and Colonies, leading to the formation of the British Commonwealth.

Jan Smuts was born in 1870, the second son of a traditional Boer farming family. By rural tradition, the eldest son would be the only child to receive a full formal education; however, on the death of his elder brother in 1882, 12-year-old Jan was sent to school for the first time. After four years of education he had made exceptional progress, gaining admission to study at Victoria College in Stellenbosch. He graduated in 1891 with first-class honours in Literature and Science. With this strong academic background, he applied for, and won, the Ebden scholarship for overseas study, electing to read Law at Christ's College, Cambridge. After further academic success, and the recipient of many prestigious academic awards, he graduated in 1894 with double First-class honours. After graduating, Smuts passed the examinations for the Inns of Court, entering the Middle Temple. In 1895, despite the prospect of a bright future in the United Kingdom, the homesick Smuts returned to South Africa.

The life of Jan Smuts
Early life 1870 - 1895
Transvaal 1895 - 1899
Boer War 1899 - 1902
British Transvaal 1902 - 1910
The Old Boers 1910 - 1914


Contents

[edit] In South Africa

[edit] Childhood

Smuts was born and raised in the district of Malmesbury, in the British Cape Colony.
Smuts was born and raised in the district of Malmesbury, in the British Cape Colony.

On 24 May 1870, at the Smuts family farm, Bovenplaats, in the district of Malmesbury, Cape Colony, a child was born to Jacobus Smuts and his wife Catharina. This child, their second son in what was to become a family of four sons and two daughters, was christened Jan Christiaan[1] after his maternal grandfather, Jan Christiaan de Vires[2]

The Smuts family were prosperous yeoman farmers, long-established in the area. For four generations, since 1786,[3] they had farmed in the Malmesbury district, settling on the farm Ongegund, of which Bovenplaats was a part, in 1818. This area was part of the so-called Swartland, the chief wheat-growing area of the Cape Colony.

1870 found Bovenplaats under the care of Jacobus Abraham Smuts and his wife Catharina Petronella. Jacobus Smuts lived in much the same manner as his forefathers—a hard-working farmer, a pillar of the Church, and one who took a leading part in the social and political affairs of the neighbourhood. Such was the regard in which he was held that he was later to be elected as the Member for Malmesbury in the Cape Parliament.[4] Smuts's mother, born Catharina Petronella de Vires, was the sister of Boudewyn Homburg de Vires, the predikant[5] of the nearby town of Riebeek West, some three miles from Bovenplaats.[6] The de Vires family originated from the area around Worcester, Cape Colony. Catharina accompanied her brother as his housekeeper when he took up his appointment at Riebeek West, eventually meeting and marrying her husband in 1866. She was a woman of considerable education and culture, at least according to the standards of the area, having studied music and French in Cape Town.

When Jan was six years of age the family moved from Bovenplaats to a new farm some thirteen miles away.[7] This farm, Klipfontein, was a bequest to Jacobus Smuts, who, keen to have a farm of his own rather than one under the supervision of his father, moved his family there in 1876.[8]

[edit] Family life

Jacobus and Catharina Smuts, 1893
Jacobus and Catharina Smuts, 1893

The Smuts family were traditional Afrikaner farmers. As such, questions of property and family affairs were extensively governed by custom. Custom dictated that it was upon the first son that family expectations fell; the family would strive, so far as their means allowed, to provide him with the best possible education with the goal of paving the way for his entry into one of the professions. As for the others, they would be put to work on the farm, while at the same time receiving a rudimentary home education.[9] As the second son this was to be Jan's role. While he remained at the farm, his elder brother, Michiel, was sent to begin his schooling in Riebeek West, destined, like his uncle Boudewyn, for a future as a predikant in the Dutch Reformed Church.

Farmwork combined with lessons from his mother—such was the order of Jan's life for the next few years. During his early childhood, still too young to be given formal responsibilities on the farm, Jan accompanied the Coloured farm labourers[10] as they went about their daily work. At this time the relations between master and servant, between black and white, were certainly not based on social equality; nevertheless, on these Swartland farms there was little of the rigid segregation which was already emerging elsewhere in South Africa and which was later to have such profound consequences. Since 1828 the Cape had enshrined in law the principle of strict legal equality between the races.[11] Unlike the rest of South Africa, all adult males, were entitled to vote and to stand for election to the Colonial legislature, subject only to a property qualification.[12] In these country districts therefore, there existed a certain intimacy between the farm owners and their labourers. At harvest times it was common to find both working together to gather in the crops and it was also commonplace to find the farm's children playing with one another, irrespective of race.[13]

In this relatively liberal environment Jan accompanied the servants in their work, listening to their stories, learning the ways of the countryside, and trying to help as best he could. As his knowledge and confidence increased Jan began to go out into the countryside by himself, exploring the hills and valleys which surrounded him. Later, as an older boy, his chief responsibility was as a herd—first of the pigs and poultry in the farmyard, and later of the cattle out on the veld. The same laws of custom which had preordained Jan's role as a farmer also had their beneficial aspect; Boer farmers customarily allotted their sons a share of the natural increase of the beasts under their care.[14] As time passed Jan gradually built up a respectable holding of livestock.

At home, away from the work of the farm, his education was not neglected. Although restricted to rudimentary home schooling, his mother's own notable education placed him and his siblings at an advantage compared with other children in similar circumstances.

[edit] Outside influence

The Smuts family lived in an almost exclusively Afrikaner world. Nevertheless this cultural identity, unlike that of the Boer republics to the north, did not define itself on opposition to Britain or the British.[15] Swartland farmers had been largely insulated from the causes of discontent of earlier years, discontent which eventually culminated in the mass Boer migrations of the Great Trek. As a result Jacobus Smuts largely unmoved by the Afrikaner nationalism preached by such organisations as the Afrikaner Bond, founded by Rev. SJ du Toit in 1877.[16] After 1884, having come under the leadership of Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, the Bond became more to the Smuts' taste. Hofmeyr changed the fundamental basis of the organisation, from one preaching Afrikaner separatism to one which combined a pragmatic policy of economic protectionism for Cape farmers and their produce with a a call for unity between the English and Dutch-speaking populations and cooperation with the Colonial authorities. As a member of the Cape legislature Jacobus Smuts pledged his support to Hofmeyr and the reformed Bond.

Unlike many parts of South Africa, conflict was an element largely absent from Jan Smuts's early life. Whether conflict between Briton and Boer, or conflict between Black and White—it had been many years since the farmers of the Swartland had had to deal with turmoil on their doorsteps. The absence of conflict, along with its inevitable counterpart, development of prejudice, had its effect upon Smuts.

In later years Smuts was to look upon this time with the uttermost fondness. Of all his childhood experiences it was the time spent out on the veld, whether tending the cattle or out on excursions of his own, which seemed to have the most marked effects on him, developing an attachment which was almost spiritual in nature. As he wrote in 1902, aged 32:

“ How well I remember the years I spent tending the cattle on the large farm, roaming over all its far expanse of veld, in which every kloof, every valley, every koppie was endeared to me by the most familiar associations. Month after month I had spent there in lonely occupation—alone with the cattle, myself and God. The veld had grown part of me, not only in the sense that my bones were a part of it, but in that more vital sense which identifies nature with man ... Having no human companion, I felt a spirit of comradeship for the objects around me. In my childish way I communed with these as with my own soul; they became the sharers of my confidence.[17] ”

In ordinary circumstances Jan Smuts would have, in time, taken over the running of the family farm, spending his life as a farmer as his father, grandfather, and great-grandfather had before him. However this was not to be; events were to conspire to change this predetermined fate.

[edit] Schooldays

In 1882 tragedy struck the Smuts family. Their eldest son, Michiel, suddenly succumbed to typhoid while attending school at Riebeek West. This time of family grief and upheaval had a direct effect upon Jan; now, as the eldest son, the weight of family expectation fell squarely upon his shoulders.

Within weeks Jan was sent from the familiar surroundings of Klipfontein to a boarding house at Riebeek West, to take his brother's place at the school of Mr TC Stoffberg. As had been the case with his brother, his parents had already mapped out his future; like his brother Jan was destined for a future in the Dutch Reformed Church, to be ordained as a predikant at the conclusion of his studies.[18] This vocation, though imposed upon him by his parents, was by no means regarded as an imposition by Jan, growing up as he had in an environment where adherence to the Church and piety of deeds counted for a good deal.[19] This upbringing had turned twelve year old Jan into a deeply religious, serious-minded boy.[20] Now, attending school for the first time, he faced a number of obstacles. Foremost amongst these was his rudimentary grasp of English, at a time when it was the main medium of instruction[21] and crucial for any Afrikaner who wished to play a role in wider Cape society.[22] Thanks to his mother's efforts. in this as well as in other subjects, he was better prepared than most children in similar circumstances, but nevertheless he was to start his schooling alongside children many years younger than himself with many years of study separating him from his contemporaries.

Even so, despite these disadvantages, Jan proved himself an outstanding scholar. He surpassed the other children both in therms of innate ability and in terms of dedication to his work. It was not for nothing that his headmaster, Mr Stoffberg, described him as "one of the most brilliant pupils he had ever taught, and the most hard-working boy he had ever met."[23] Within three years Jan had made sufficient progress to have caught up with his age group, children with ip to ten years of formal education behind them.[24] He compounded this remarkable achievement when the time came for him to sit the Cape Colony elementary examination in 1885; Jan was placed ninth in the entire colony. The next year he surpassed even this, coming second in the School Higher examination.[25]

During these few years at Riebeek West Jan worked assiduously at his studies—self-evidently, given his achievements. His academic abilities were soon noted by his headmaster, who went out of his way to provide Jan with further curricular reading.[26] Yet this was to prove insufficient to meet what was becoming an almost insatiable thirst for knowledge. Jan borrowed books and yet more books from the headmaster, poring over them at all times rather than engaging in the childish pursuits of the other children, separated from them by his strong work ethic. A few weeks before the School Higher examination this had its consequences—Jan fell ill, an illness exacerbated by his unremitting study. With a strict injunction from his doctor, ordering a complete rest with an absolute prohibition on work and reading, Jan was packed off to bed. Nevertheless, despite the doctor's orders, Jan went to strenuous lengths to evade the ban. One story told of him during this enforced convalescence describes ho he used to involve the headmaster's youngest son in his subterfuges, bribing the four year old child to bring him books from his father's study. This enjoyed considerable success until the day of an unannounced visit from the headmaster's wife. In his sparsely furnished room there were few possibilities, but Jan made the best job that he could of concealing his by now substantial collection of books. The headmaster's wife upon entering the room found Jan, as expected, in bed. However the boy did not look to be comfortably resting as he ought, in fact he looked positively uncomfortable. She offered to make Jan's bed for him, he declined, insisting that he was perfectly comfortable; she insisted and, being the headmaster's wife, got her way. Embarking upon her deed of kindness she found, to her astonishment, the real reason for Jan's restlessness—underneath his bedclothes he was making a valiant effort to conceal an immense pile of contraband books![27]

This dedication to reading and study might, in another boy, have been nothing more than a reaction to the impending examinations—but not in Jan's case. What made this particular episode revealing was that the books found under his bedclothes were largely unconnected with his studies. In Riebeek West he developed a life-long habit, that of reading avidly outside the prescribed curriculum, seeking knowledge for its own sake.[28]

In 1886, at the age of sixteen, Jan embarked on the next stage of his education. Jan applied to, and was accepted by, Victoria College, Stellenbosch—one of the most prominent institutes of higher education in the Cape. In late 1886 he bade farewell to Riebeek West, ready to embark upon a new stage in life.

[edit] Victoria College

Isie Krige, 1888
Isie Krige, 1888

At Victoria College, Jan faced similar problems to those that he faced at school. He was reclusive and addicted to his studies. Perhaps the best indication of Jan's personality at this time comes from a letter he wrote just prior to enrolling, to a tutor there, Dr C Murray:

“ ... such a place [Stellenbosch], where a large puerile element exists, affords fair scope for moral, and what is more important, religious temptation, which, if yielded to will eclipse alike the expectations of my parents and the intentions of myself ... for of what use will a mind, enlarged and refined in all possible ways, be to me, if my religion be a deserted pilot and morality a wreck?[29] ”

Given these attitudes, it is unsurprising that Jan spent his five years in Stellenbosch largely aloof from the "puerile element" - that is to say from his peers. Without social outlet, he buried himself in his work. He taught himself High Dutch. He immersed himself in German and in the works of the German romantics, whilst learning Ancient Greek, so that he could study the classics. On Sundays, he attended both morning and evening church services and conducted a Bible study class for coloured boys.[30] During the week, he also found time to regularly attend prayer meetings. Physically, he continued to find refreshment in long, solitary walks.

However, Stellenbosch began to round some of the sharp edges in Jan's character; during his time there, he began to cast off some of his shyness. Here he met Isie Krige, with whom he fell in love. She adored him, and revered him for his intellect. He was happy with having any female acquaintance, especially someone who gave him self-confidence.

He joined the local militia and began to write for the college magazine - for the first time beginning to consider the major political issues confronting South Africa.[31]

[edit] Political awakening

While at Stellenbosch, he became leader of the college debating society; in this role he was called upon to make the speech of welcome to Cecil Rhodes, on the occasion of his visit to the college in 1888. Rhodes, on the verge of becoming Prime Minister of the Cape Colony, was an enthusiastic proponent of a wider Southern African union and the extension of British dominion in Africa. It was fitting therefore that Smuts, whose thoughts had begun to develop along the very same lines, should deliver the welcome address on the theme of Pan-Africanism.[32]

Smuts had been thinking along these lines throughout his time at Stellenbosch. These emerging political views developed in tandem with his personal system of philosophy - ideas which he was later to develop into the philosophy of holism. Smuts wrote two political essays during this time, essays which already betray the influence of one holism's key concepts - the realisation of inherent unity.

The first essay was written in 1890. Entitled 'South African Customs Union'[33], it was entered for the JB Ebden prize offered by the University of the Cape of Good Hope. The essay, conisting of some sixty pages of closely written foolscap, was 'highly commended', but failed to win the prize. In this essay, Smuts considered the economic relations of the colonies and states of South Africa - relations which were often beset by arguments and petty jealousies. Smuts's overarching conclusion was that:

“ No policy in any Colony or state is sound, which does not recognise, and frame its measures as much as possible in accordance with the fact that South Africa is one, that consisting as it does of separate parts, it yet forms one commercial and moral unity. ”

In this essay, Smuts examined the existing economic arrangements of South Africa, attempting to illustrate the weaknesses of existing arrangements - weaknesses which were to the disadvantage of all of South Africa. Smuts pressed the advantages of economic union as being self-evidently superior. Smuts had considered the realisation of the inherent commercial unity of South Africa, in his next important essay he considered moral unity.

In 'The Conditions of Future South African Literature'[34] Smuts considered the cultural and emotional elements which would be necessary, in addition to commercial union, for the realisation of South Africa's inherent unity. Smuts considered the chief barrier to be the relations between the traditionalist Afrikaners and the new British immigrants. Smuts urged the Britons to integrate with the existing population, and the Afrikaners to accept the new dynamism that the immigrants were injecting. In Smuts's view, such consolidation was vital, both for the sake of a future South African nation and for the survival of the white populations in the face of the vastly greater African population.

Smuts's views were of limited importance, for the time being. These were merely schoolboy essays which, although cogently argued, suffered from many analytical faults. Nevertheless, the themes within them served as the long-term bedrock of Smuts's politics.

In 1891, he graduated with First-class honours in Literature and Science. He applied for, and won, the Ebden scholarship for overseas study. He left the Cape to read Law at Cambridge University.

[edit] Spreading his wings

[edit] Cambridge

Jan went to study at Christ's College, Cambridge, a bastion of academia at the heart of the British Empire. In later years, he was to write:

“ At Cambridge, I read much, walked much and thought much; and when I left the University I had probably drunk as deeply of the well of knowledge as most ... I did not, however, mix much in the social life of the place.[35] ”
Christ's College, Cambridge.
Christ's College, Cambridge.

Smuts came to Cambridge at the age of twenty-one, three or more years older than his fellow undergraduates. He was isolated from the other men of his year by a different social background, upbringing and attitudes. He maintained his disdain for the 'puerile element' from his days in Stellenbosch. During his first term at Cambridge, Smuts suffered from tremendous homesickness, describing himself as being "utterly desolate".[36]

In spite of Smuts's loneliness, he had not been without social opportunities. During his first term, he received and accepted invitations to join the debating society and to write for the college magazine.[37] However, he did not follow up the opportunities for friendship which these activities put in his way. Smuts's shyness was undoubtedly a factor in this, however perhaps the dominant cause was that Smuts was living in poverty, he lacked the money to repay the hospitality of others.[38]

Smuts was a recipient of the Ebden scholarship which typically paid some £200 per year. However, due to a bank failure, Smuts was awarded only £100. Before leaving the Cape, Smuts sold the holding of livestock which he had accumulated from the family farm. This money paid his sea passage and left him with a modest sum to bank. Nevertheless, he soon discovered that even essential undergraduate expenses were beyond his resources. Smuts wrote to the trustees of the Ebden fund, but was told that nothing could be done. In desperation, he wrote, bemoaning his situation, to a friend from his time at Stellenbosch, Professor JI Marais, lecturer in Theology. Professor Marais immediately replied, enclosing a cheque for £50 and urging Smuts to approach him whenever he found himself in need.[39] Marais continued to advance money towards Smuts throughout his time at Cambridge; in return, Smuts took out a life insurance policy, naming Marais as beneficiary.

With his financial situation more secure, Smuts found himself able to enter more into the social arena of the university. He ceased to be lonely, making acquaintances chiefly amongst the other colonial students.[40] He went on frequent walking expeditions, both with these friends and alone. Although he ceased to be lonely, he remained extremely serious and dedicated to his work; an attitude which perhaps was the main barrier between him and the English undergraduates.

At Cambridge, Smuts nurtured his passion for literature, reading widely from sources that had not been available to him, even at Victoria College. He was enthralled by the romantics and transcendentalists. His favourite author was the American poet Walt Whitman. So great was Whitman's impact upon Smuts that the student wrote a book on Whitman, but it remained unpublished until Smuts's fame had made it inevitable. However, the effect manifested itself more evidently in Smuts's idealism, and his later work, Holism and Evolution, which drew greatly from the transcendental movement.

In addition to extra-curricular studies, Smuts also excelled at Law. He achieved the unique distinction of attempting both parts of the Law Tripos in the same year and passing with First-class honours. He won many academic awards and accolades. In 1893, he won the prestigious George Long prize in Roman Law and Jurisprudence; a particular honour given that the prize was very rarely awarded as the required high academic standard was rarely met.[41]

[edit] Aftermath

Smut's tutor, Professor FW Maitland, himself one of the most eminent legal scholars of the time, described Smuts as the most brilliant law student he had ever taught, providing Smuts with a glowing testemonial.[42] With his brilliant academic record and endorsements such as this Smuts's future was bright.

In 1894, he passed the examinations for the Inns of Court, entering the Middle Temple. The possibility of a distinguished legal career was now before him. His old college, Christ's College, offered him a fellowship in Law, but Smuts turned it down.[43] Instead, by June 1895, he was back in the Cape Colony, determined to make his future there.

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ From early adulthood Smuts was to anglicise his second name to 'Christian'.
  2. ^ Smuts, JC - Jan Christian Smuts, p6
  3. ^ Cameron, T - Jan Smuts:An Illustrated Biography, p9
  4. ^ In 1898 - Hancock, WK - Smuts: 1. The Sanguine Years, 1870–1919, p5
  5. ^ Minister of religion of the Dutch Reformed Church, the dominant Christian denomination in South Africa.
  6. ^ Smuts, JC - Jan Christian Smuts, p6
  7. ^ Smuts, JC - Jan Christian Smuts, p15
  8. ^ Hancock, WK - Smuts: 1. The Sanguine Years, 1870–1919, p7
  9. ^ Hancock, WK - Smuts: 1. The Sanguine Years, 1870–1919, p8
  10. ^ In the late nineteenth century, comparatively few of the non-white population of the western Cape were Black—those of Coloured ethnicity formed the overwhelming majority. Ingham, K - Jan Christian Smuts: Conscience of a South African, p8
  11. ^ Ordinance 50 of 1828. cf Eybers, GW - Select Constitutional Documents Illustrating South African History, 1795-1910, (1909), p26
  12. ^ Occupation of fixed immovable property valued at £25 or, as an alternative, receipt of wages of £50 per year. cf McCracken, JL - The Cape Parliament:1854-1910, (1967), p68
  13. ^ Hancock, WK - Smuts: 1. The Sanguine Years, 1870–1919, p9
  14. ^ Hancock, WK - Smuts: 1. The Sanguine Years, 1870–1919, p9
  15. ^ Smuts JC - Jan Christian Smuts, p8
  16. ^ Ingham, K - Jan Christian Smuts: The Conscience of a South African, p3
  17. ^ Smuts JC - Jan Christian Smuts, p12
  18. ^ Smuts, JC - Jan Christian Smuts, p14
  19. ^ Smuts, JC - Jan Christian Smuts, p7
  20. ^ Hancock, WK - Smuts: 1. The Sanguine Years, 1870–1919, p11
  21. ^ Selections from the Smuts Papers,vol 1, p3
  22. ^ State secondary schooling was almost exclusively English-medium and English was the sole official language of the Civil Service, the Colonial legislature, and the Courts. cf. Davenport, TRH - The Afrikaner Bond: The History of a South African Political Party, 1880-1911, (1966), pp2-4
  23. ^ Hancock, WK - Smuts: 1. The Sanguine Years, 1870–1919, p11
  24. ^ Smuts, JS - Jan Christian Smuts, p15
  25. ^ Hancock, WK - Smuts: 1. The Sanguine Years, 1870–1919, p11
  26. ^ Smuts, JC - Jan Christian Smuts, p15
  27. ^ Hancock, WK - Smuts: 1. The Sanguine Years, 1870–1919, p11
  28. ^ Hancock, WK - Smuts: 1. The Sanguine Years, 1870–1919, p12
  29. ^ Smuts to C Murray, 12 June 1886, Selections from the Smuts Papers (hereafter SP) vol.1, p.4
  30. ^ WK Hancock, Smuts: 1. The Sanguine Years, p.15
  31. ^ WK Hancock, Smuts: 1. The Sanguine Years, p.31
  32. ^ JC Smuts, Jan Christian Smuts, p.19
  33. ^ Essay, 1891, SP vol.1, p.15
  34. ^ Essay, 1892, SP vol.1, p.41
  35. ^ JC Smuts, Jan Christian Smuts, p.21
  36. ^ WK Hancock, Smuts: 1. The Sanguine Years, p.33
  37. ^ WK Hancock, Smuts: 1. The Sanguine Years, p.34
  38. ^ K Ingham, Smuts: The Conscience of a South African, p.9
  39. ^ JI Marais to Smuts, 8 Aug 1892, SP vol.1, p.25
  40. ^ WK Hancock, Smuts: 1. The Sanguine Years, p.42
  41. ^ JC Smuts, Jan Christian Smuts, p.23
  42. ^ FW Maitland to Smuts, 15 June 1894, SP vol.1, pp.33–34
  43. ^ JC Smuts, Jan Christian Smuts, p.24

[edit] Select Bibliography

[edit] Primary Sources

  • Hancock, WK and van der Poel, J (eds) - Selections from the Smuts Papers, 1886-1950, (7 vols), (1966-73)

[edit] Smuts, General

  • Cameron, T - Jan Smuts: An Illustrated Biography, (1994)
  • Hancock, WK - Smuts: 1. The Sanguine Years, 1870–1919, (1962)
  • Ingham, K - Jan Christian Smuts: The Conscience of a South African, (1986)
  • Millin, SG - General Smuts, (2 vols), (1933)
  • Smuts, JC - Jan Christian Smuts, (1952)
Jan Smuts Jan Smuts
I: Early life | II: The South African Republic | III: The Boer War | IV: A British Transvaal
V: The Old Boers
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org../../../e/a/r/Early_life_of_Jan_Smuts_6402.html"