Dispensationalism
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As a current in Protestant Christian theology, Dispensationalism is a form of premillennialism which teaches biblical history as a number of successive economies or administrations, called dispensations, each of which emphasizes the continuity of the Old Testament covenants God made with His chosen people through Abraham, Moses and King David. However dispensationalism conceptually also exists beyond issues of just Christian doctrine. For example the Bahá'í Faith uses the general concept of dispensations as described but in the broader context of all the major religions of humanity.[1]
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[edit] Introduction
In the context of Christianity, dispensationalism is an interpretive or narrative framework for understanding the overall flow of the Bible, and is frequently contrasted with an opposing interpretation: supersessionism (also referred to as Covenant Theology, see also New Covenant (theology)). In simple terms, supersessionism teaches that the Christian Church has been established for the salvation of "the Jews first, and also to the Gentiles", and that there is one people of God joined in unity through Jesus Christ. Since the Jews have largely refused to accept Christ - "the Messiah of Israel" - and he is their means to salvation, those individual Jews that reject Him - that is, reject the merits of his atoning sacrifice for sins - in effect reject the only provision God has offered for divine forgiveness, and are therefore damned. In contrast, dispensationalism teaches that the Christian Church is a "parenthesis" in God's dealings with the Jews, when the Gospel began to go to the Gentiles instead of the Jews, but that God's continued favor of the Jews will be revealed after the Church Age (or Dispensation), when the Jews will be restored to their land and will own Jesus as their Messiah. Hence, dispensationalists typically believe in a Jewish restoration.
[edit] British History
Born out of the restless religious environment in England and Ireland in the 1820s, dispensationalism is rooted in the Plymouth Brethren movement, especially the teachings of John Nelson Darby (1800–1882).
Dispensationalism: the dividing of history into specific periods according to how God is said to have dealt with humanity. For example, from the Fall to Noah, God related to man through his conscience, from Moses to Christ, He related to man through the Law, and so forth. Late 19th-Century premillenialists held that God had a "pattern for the ages." Composed of seven dispensations, the last would be the Millennium. Dispensationalism was made popular through the notes of the Scofield Reference Bible. It came to be more than a way of looking at history; it was tied to the verbal inerrancy of the Bible.[citation needed]
Dispensation is the translation of a conjunction in the Greek of "oikanomia". "Oiko" which means "house" and "nomos" which means "law" or "order". Literally, it refers to the order of the household and is similar to the English word "economy". When the prefix "ultra" or "hyper" are attached it might be accurate to think of the word as defining very tidy housekeeping.
Darby built on a number of themes that were common among the more radical Calvinists in the Evangelical movement of the early 19th century, but he elaborated a more complex and complete system for interpreting the Bible than previous writers.[citation needed]
The Plymouth Brethren movement, essentially a reaction against Anglican and Roman Catholic ecclesiology, became known for its anti-denominational, anti-clerical, and anti-creedal stance. In 1848, the Plymouth Brethren split into an "Exclusive" group led by Darby and an "Open" group. Darby's views became dominant among the Exclusive Brethren, but were not widespread among Open Brethren until the 1870s or 1880s.[citation needed]
[edit] North America
Dispensationalism was first introduced to North America by John Inglis (1813–1879), through a monthly magazine called Waymarks in the Wilderness (published intermittently between 1854 and 1872)[citation needed]. In 1866, Inglis organized the Believers' Meeting for Bible Study, which introduced dispensationalist ideas to a small but influential circle of American evangelicals. After Inglis' death, James H. Brookes (1830–1898), a pastor in St. Louis, organized the Niagara Bible Conference to continue the dissemination of dispensationalist ideas. Dispensationalism was boosted after Dwight L. Moody (1837–1899) learned of "dispensational truth" from an unidentified member of the Brethren in 1872. Moody became close to Brookes and other dispensationalists, and encouraged the spread of dispensationalism, but apparently never learned the nuances of the dispensationalist system. Dispensationalism began to evolve during this time, most significantly when a significant body of dispensationalists proposed the "post-tribulation" Rapture. Dispensationalist leaders in Moody's circle include Reuben Archer Torrey (1856–1928), James M. Gray (1851–1925), Cyrus I. Scofield (1843–1921), William J. Erdman (1833–1923), A. C. Dixon (1854–1925), A. J. Gordon (1836–1895) and William Eugene Blackstone, author of the bestseller of the 1800s "Jesus is Coming" (Endorsed by Torrey and Erdman). These men were activist evangelists who promoted a host of Bible conferences and other missionary and evangelistic efforts. They also gave the dispensationalist movement institutional permanence by assuming leadership of the new independent Bible institutes such as the Moody Bible Institute (1886), the Bible Institute of Los Angeles—now Biola University (1907), and the Philadelphia College of the Bible—now Philadelphia Biblical University (1913). The network of related institutes that soon sprang up became the nucleus for the spread of American dispensationalism.
The energetic efforts of C. I. Scofield and his associates introduced dispensationalism to a wider audience in America and bestowed a measure of respectability through his Scofield Reference Bible. The publication of the Scofield Reference Bible in 1909 by the Oxford University Press was something of an innovative literary coup for the movement, since for the first time, overtly dispensationalist notes were added to the pages of the biblical text. The Scofield Reference Bible became the leading bible used by independent Evangelicals and Fundamentalists in the U.S. for the next sixty years. Evangelist and bible teacher Lewis Sperry Chafer (1871–1952), who was strongly influenced by C. I. Scofield, founded Dallas Theological Seminary in 1924, which has become the flagship of dispensationalism in America. The so-called "Grace Movement", which began in the 1930s with the teaching ministries of J.C. O'Hair, Cornelius R. Stam, Henry Hudson and Charles Baker has been mischaracterized as "ultra" or "hyper" dispensationalism (an actual misnomer according to the etymology of the Greek word base for "dispensation"). The contrasts between law and grace, prophecy and mystery, Israel and the church, the body of Christ were energized by Scofield, Barnhouse and Ironside in the hearts of these men and studied and proclaimed by O'Hair, Stam and a host of other "grace" teachers. Dispensationalism has come to dominate the American Evangelical scene, especially among nondenominational Bible churches, many Baptists, Armstrongists, and most Pentecostal and Charismatic groups.
[edit] Dispensationalist theology
- See main article: Dispensationalist theology
Dispensationalism seeks to address what many see as opposing theologies between the Old Testament and New Testament. Its name comes from the fact that it sees biblical history as best understood in light of a series of dispensations in the Bible. The precise list of dispensations varies between authors, but the most common list of dispensations is taken from the notes to the Scofield Bible:
- the dispensation of innocence (Gen 1:1–3:7), prior to Adam's fall,
- of conscience (Gen 3:8–8:22), Adam to Noah,
- of government (Gen 9:1–11:32), Noah to Abraham,
- of patriarchal rule (Gen 12:1–Exod 19:25), Abraham to Moses,
- of the Mosaic Law (Exod 20:1–Acts 2:4), Moses to Christ,
- of grace (Acts 2:4–Rev 20:3 – except for Hyperdispensationalists), the current church age, and
- of a literal, earthly 1,000-year Millennial Kingdom that has yet to come but soon will (Rev 20:4–20:6).[citation needed]
Each dispensation is said to represent a different way in which God deals with man, often a different test for man. "These periods are marked off in Scripture by some change in God's method of dealing with mankind, in respect to two questions: of sin, and of man's responsibility," explained C. I. Scofield. "Each of the dispensations may be regarded as a new test of the natural man, and each ends in judgment—marking his utter failure in every dispensation."
An alternative to this popular “seven-dispensations” approach comes with a rather simple and helpful observation from reading through the Bible with this careful question: How and by whom is God evangelizing lost men and women at any given time of human history even into the future? God through the ages has chosen to use people to evangelize other people with His gospel of redemption and salvation. An interesting pattern can be traced through the Bible from Genesis to Revelation: Beginning with only various Gentile Nations; then Israel (through Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob to Christ); then The Church, (our present age); then Israel for 7 years more (in the future); and then a Millennial, Earthly Kingdom of Christ –
- the dispensation or age of Gentile Nations (Gen 1-11), from Adam to Abraham’s Call;
- of Israel (Gen 12 – Acts 1), from Abraham’s Call to Pentecost in Acts 2;
- of The Church (Acts 2 – Rev. 2), from Pentecost in Act 2 to the end of The Church Age;
- of The (missionary) Tribulation of Israel (Rev. 6-19), A yet-future Seven-year period;
- of a literal, earthly 1,000-year Millennial Kingdom with a rebuilt temple and reinstituted animal sacrifices and O.T. rituals that has yet to come but soon will (Rev 20:4–6).
[edit] Basic Tenets of Dispensationalism
[edit] Progressive Revelation
One of the most important underlying theological concept for dispensationalists is progressive revelation. While all Christians hold to some form of progressive revelation, dispensationalists "prioritize" progressive revelation to a higher degree than do nondispensationalists. Also while some nondispensationalists start with progressive revelation in the New Testament and read this back into the Old Testament, dispensationalists begin with progressive revelation in the Old Testament and read forward in a historical sense. Therefore there is an emphasis on discontinuity as seen in Scripture. Biblical covenants are intricately tied to the dispensations. When these Biblical covenants are compared and contrasted, the result is a historical ordering of different dispensations. Also with regard to the different Biblical covenant promises, dispensationalists place more emphasis to whom these promises were written, the original recipients. This has led to certain fundamental dispensational beliefs, such as a distinction between Israel and the church.
[edit] Historical-Grammatical Interpretation
Another important theological concept is the emphasis on what is referred to as the historical-grammatical method of interpretation. This is often popularly referred to as the "literal" interpretation of Scripture. Just as it is with progressive revelation, the historical-grammatical method is not a concept or practice that is exclusive just to dispensationalists. However, a dispensational distinctive is created when the historical-grammatical method of interpretation is closely coupled with an emphasis on progressive revelation along with the historical development of the covenants in Scripture.
[edit] Distinction Between Israel and the Church
All dispensationalists perceive a clear distinction between Israel and the church, particularly as different groups who receive a different set of promises. Dispensationalists hold that God provided the nation of Israel with specific promises which will be fulfilled at a future time in the Jews. The Church has received a different set of promises than that of Israel. Most dispensationalists also recognize "membership" overlap between Israel and the Church. Jewish Christians such as Paul, Peter and John are in this category. While most do not believe that Israel and the church are mutually exclusive groups, there is a small minority of past and present dispensationalists who do. Those who do hold that Israel and the church are mutually exclusive include some classical dispensationalists and virtually all ultradispensationalists.
[edit] Other Proposed Distinctions: Law and Grace
Some have said that dispensationalism teaches law and grace are mutually exclusive concepts. While a small minority of ultradispensational authors teach this, mainstream dispensationalists do not. Statements by Scofield and other early classic dispensationalists were misconstrued by opponents to teach a radical law-grace distinction and law-based salvation. However the subsequent writings of dispensational authors have dispelled the earlier erroneous charges. Both Charles Ryrie's book Dispensationalism Today and The New Scofield Reference Bible (1967) explain how dispensationalists hold that grace is present in all dispensations. Daniel Fuller, a nondispensationalist, stated in his book Gospel and Law (p. 51) that "Although today's dispensationalism explains the relationship between law and grace in wording that is different from that of covenant theology, there is no substantial difference in meaning."
[edit] Types of dispensationalism
[edit] Traditional dispensationalism
The traditional view is the majority view for dispensationalists today. John Walvoord and Charles Ryrie are two traditional dispensational authors. The Revised Scofield Bible of the 1960s also reflects a traditional dispensational view, which is why traditional dispensationalists are sometimes called "Revised" dispensationalists.
[edit] Progressive dispensationalism
The progressive dispensationalism view is a recent development within dispensationalism from the 1980s. The primary difference between progressive and traditional dispensationalists is seen in how closely the covenants relate to one another. Darrell Bock, Craig Blaising and Robert Saucy are the main progressive dispensationalist authors.
[edit] Ultra-dispensationalism
- See main article: Hyperdispensationalism
Ultra-dispensationalism is a minority view within dispensationalism. Unlike the other types of dispensationalists who hold the church began in Acts 2, ultra-dispensationalists hold that the church began later in the book of Acts. Ultra-dispensationalism originated with E.W. Bullinger who held that the church began at the end of the book of Acts (Acts 28 position). Later the Mid-Acts position was a "moderation" of the Acts 28 position, where the church was believed to have begun somewhere between Acts 8-13. Mid-Acts authors include Cornelius Stam and Charles Baker, while E.W. Bullinger represents the Acts 28 view.
[edit] Classical dispensationalism
Early dispensational writers such as Darby and Chafer are referred to as classical dispensationalists. This view differs from today's traditional or "revised" dispensationalists. The early Scofield Bible (but not the Revised Scofield Bible) reflects a classical dispensational view. Classical dispensationalists are a small minority today, and Miles Stanford is one writer who represents this point of view.
[edit] Alternatives to dispensationalism
Prior to dispensationalism's 19-20th century inception and systemization, Covenant Theology was the prominent Protestant view regarding redemptive history and is still the view of the Reformed churches. A relatively recent view, which is seen as a third alternative, especially among Reformed Baptists, is called New Covenant Theology. Outside of Protestant Christianity, however, the other branches of Christianity (for example, Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox) reject both dispensationalism and Covenant Theology.
In the recent centuries, several new alternatives to dispensational eschatology have appeared, such as Preterism and Partial Preterism, views which place the Second Coming in the year A.D. 70, at the fall and destruction of the Jewish Temple.
[edit] Influence of dispensationalist beliefs
Dispensationalism has had a number of effects on Protestantism, at least as it is practiced in the United States. By consistently teaching that the Beast of Revelation, or the Antichrist, is a political leader, dispensationalism has weakened the traditional Reformation-era identification of that figure with the Pope, and the Roman Catholic Church with the Whore of Babylon, however only in a minor way. While the Pope has been portrayed as an Antichrist in Protestant literature for hundreds of years (even before their official designation as Protestants during the Reformation), the Pope is still usually identified with one of the three main Agents of Satan who implement global deception during the Great Tribulation. Modern Dispensationalism has led many evangelical Christians in the U.S. to separate their traditional anti-Catholicism and anti-papal perspective from their own much more empathetic perspective towards lay Catholics. Some dispensationalists, usually of the Fundamentalist variety, have continued to teach that a pope (or an antipope) will be the Antichrist or the False Prophet of the book of Revelation.
Dispensationalism rejects the notion of supersessionism. It tends to go hand in hand with a very protective attitude toward the Jewish people and the modern State of Israel. John Nelson Darby taught, and most subsequent dispensationalists have consistently maintained, that God looks upon the Jews as his chosen people even if they remain in rejection of Jesus Christ and continues to have a place for them in the dispensational, prophetic scheme of things. While many traditions of Christianity teach that the Jews are a distinct people, irrevocably entitled to the promises of God (because, in the words of the epistle to the Romans, "the gifts and calling of God are without repentance"), dispensationalism is unique in teaching that the Church is a provisional dispensation, until the Jews finally recognize Jesus as their promised Messiah during the trials that dispensationalists envision coming upon the Jews in the Great Tribulation. Darby's prophecies envision Judaism as continuing to enjoy God's protection, parallel to Christianity, literally to the End of Time, and teach that God has a separate track in the prophecies for Jews apart from the Church. However, dispensationalists hold that God does not recognize Jew or Gentile today:
- For there is no difference between the Jew and the Greek: for the same Lord over all is rich unto all that call upon him. (Romans 10:12, KJV)
[edit] Dispensationalism and Judaism
Christian Dispensationalists sometimes embrace what some critics have pejoratively called Judeophilia—ranging from support of the state of Israel, to observing traditional Jewish holidays and practicing traditionally Jewish religious rituals. (See also Jewish Christians and Judaizers.) At any rate, dispensationalists are typically, in practical terms, Zionists and allies of the Jews and enthusiastic popularizers of Judaica, and foes of anti-Semitism (in the conventional sense).
[edit] Dispensationalism and Messianic Judaism
Dispensationalists tend to be energetically evangelistic, with special interest in the Jews because they are "God's chosen people." Dispensationalist beliefs are widespread in many forms of Messianic Judaism, for example, which seeks to convert Jews to a form of Christianity mixed with Jewish culture and tradition. In some dispensationalist circles, the Jewish converts to Christianity are sometimes referred to as "completed Jews". Thus, while it is at odds with traditional supersessionism (which was formulated to discourage directly carrying over Jewish practice into the Christian Church), dispensationalism generally is markedly at odds with modern religious pluralism, which is typified by the view that proselytism of the Jews is a form of anti-Semitism.
- The above claims describing Messianic Judaism as "Christianity mixed with Jewish culture and tradition" and avering dispensationalist beliefs widespread in Messianic Judaism, are disputed. Per Martin Waldman, Congregational Leader of Baruch HaShem Messianic Synagogue in Dallas, Texas, Dan Juster, Th.D., Executive Director of Tikkun Ministries International, Russ Resnick, General Secretary of the Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations, David H. Stern, Ph.D., author of Messianic Jewish Manifesto, The Complete Jewish Bible, and The Jewish New Testament Commentary, as well as many other Messianic Jewish leaders, "Christianity mixed with Jewish culture and tradition" is called Hebrew Christianity, with Messianic Judaism rejecting Dispensationalism and proclaiming Olive Tree Theology (as detailed in Stern's Messianic Jewish Manifesto).
[edit] The identity of the Antichrist
Some dispensationalists, such as Jerry Falwell, have asserted that the Antichrist will be a Jew, based on a belief that the Antichrist will falsely seem to some Jews to fulfill prophesies of the Messiah more accurately than Jesus did[citation needed]. This assertion stems from the dispensational belief that "he" who confirms "the covenant with many for one week" (Dan 9:27) refers back to "the prince that shall come" in verse 26. In turn, this "prince" will stand up "against the Prince of princes" and destroy many "by peace" (Dan 8:25); and will be responsible for the false "peace and safety" that will precede the destructive day of the Lord (1 Thess 5:2–3). Many dispensationalists believe this man will be a Jew, based in part on John 5:43, where the Lord stated that the unbelieving Jews would receive another who "shall come in his own name" (as opposed to the Lord Himself, who came in the Father's name). Further evidence is from Daniel 11:37, "Neither shall he regard the God of his fathers, nor the desire of women, nor regard any god: for he shall magnify himself above all," although in a passage as late as Daniel, a better translation is probably that "He will reject the gods (Eloha) of his fathers." The prophet Daniel refers to this man as "a vile person", who will "obtain the kingdom by flatteries" (Dan 11:21). This belief is not essential to dispensationalism[citation needed].
[edit] Dispensationalism and world politics
Dispensationalism teaches that Christians should not expect spiritual good from earthly governments, and should expect social conditions to decline as the end times draw nearer. Dispensationalist readings of prophecies often teach that the Antichrist will appear to the world as a peacemaker. This makes some dispensationalists suspicious of all forms of power, religious and secular, and especially of human attempts to form international organizations for peace, such as the United Nations. Almost all dispensationalists reject the idea that a lasting peace can be attained by human effort in the Middle East, and believe instead that "wars and rumors of wars" (cf. Matt 24:6) will increase as the end times approach. Dispensationalist beliefs often underlie the religious and political movement of Christian Zionism.
Some dispensationalists teach that churches that do not insist on Biblical literalism as they deem appropriate are in fact part of the Great Apostasy. This casts suspicion on attempts to create church organizations that cross denominational boundaries such as the World Council of Churches. (See also ecumenism.)
[edit] Dispensationalism and United States politics
Some political analysts have argued that dispensationalism has had a major influence on the foreign policy of the United States. This influence has included strong support for the state of Israel. Richard Allen Greene[2]
[edit] Dispensationalism and fiction
Dispensationalist themes form the basis of the successful Left Behind series of books. However, not all dispensationalists agree with the theology of authors Tim LaHaye and Jerry Jenkins.
[edit] People
The following individuals have been associated with dispensationalism:
- Sir Robert Anderson (1841–1918), "Anglicanized Irishman of Scottish extraction", 1863 entered the Irish Bar; Assistant Commissioner of Metropolitan Police in Scotland Yard; lay preacher and defender of the Faith; saw difference between Israel and the Church; authored 19 books on the Bible.
- Charles F. Baker (1905–1994), author (A Dispensational Theology), and founder of Grace Bible College, Grace Movement pioneer.
- James H. Brookes (1830–1897), minister, writer, and theologian. Cyrus I. Scofield was one of his students.
- John Hagee pastor Cornerstone Church , writer, and theologian. Founder of John Hagee Today tv and radio program.
- Clarence Larkin (1850–1924), author of many pamphlets and books around 1918 containing extensive graphical dispensational charts with commentary[3]
- Jack Chick (b. 1924), controversial fundamentalist cartoonist and founder of Chick Publications.
- John Nelson Darby (1800–1882), British preacher, Plymouth Brethren co-founder, and considered by many as the "father of dispensationalism."
- Arnold Fruchtenbaum (b. 1943), writer and theologian
- Mark Hitchcock, pastor and author[4]
- Thomas Ice, writer
- Harry A. Ironside (1876–1951), pastor of The Moody Church, Chicago, and author of more than 60 books.
- Tim LaHaye (b. 1926), minister, author of the "Left Behind" novel series, and speaker.
- Hal Lindsey (b. 1929), evangelist and author of "The Late Great Planet Earth" and other books advocating a dispensationalist and fundamentalist understanding of Christianity.
- J. Dwight Pentecost (b. 1915), writer and theologian
- Charles Caldwell Ryrie (b. 1925), Christian writer and theologian. Better known for his "Ryrie Study Bible", which is known to teach dispensationalism.
- Cyrus I. Scofield (1843–1921), minister, scholar, and theologian. Better known for his influential Scofield Reference Bible (published in 1909) that popularized dispensationalism.
- Miles J. Stanford (1914–1999), Christian author and Pauline dispensationalist.
- Charles Stevens, founder of Piedmont Baptist College.
- Henry C. Thiessen, author of Lectures in Systematic Theology and taught at Dallas Theological Seminary.
- Jack Van Impe (b. 1930), televangelist known for interpreting current events in light of a dispensationalist approach to biblical prophecy.
- John F. Walvoord (1910–2002), longtime president of Dallas Theological Seminary and leading proponent of dispensationalism in the late 20th century.
- Kenneth Wuest (1893–1962), New Testament Greek (Κοινή) scholar.
[edit] Notes
- ^ The Bahá'í View of Islam. studycircle. Retrieved on 2007-03-20.
- ^ Greene, Richard Allen. Evangelical Christians plead for Israel. Retrieved on 2007-03-20.
- ^ Rev. Clarence Larkin Estate
- ^ Faith Bible Church, Edmond, Oklahoma
[edit] References
- Allis, Oswald T. Prophecy and the Church (Presbyterian & Reformed, 1945; reprint: Wipf & Stock, 2001). ISBN 1-57910-709-5
- Bass, Clarence B.: Backgrounds to Dispensationalism (Baker Books, 1960) ISBN 0-8010-0535-3
- Boyer, Paul: When Time Shall Be No More: Prophecy Belief in Modern American Culture (Belknap, 1994) ISBN 0-674-95129-8
- Camp, Gregory S. Selling Fear: Conspiracy Theories and End-Time Paranoia (Baker, 1997) ISBN 0-8010-5721-3
- Larkin, Clarence, The Greatest Book on Dispensational Truth in the World; or God's Plan and Purpose in the Ages A.K.A. Dispensational Truth (1918) ASIN B000ALVEHM
- Clouse, Robert G., ed. The Millennium: Four Views (InterVarsity, 1977) ISBN 0-87784-794-0
- Crenshaw, Curtis I., and Grover E. Gunn, III. Dispensationalism: Today, Yesterday, and Tomorrow (Footstool, 1987) ISBN 1-877818-01-1
- Crutchfield, Larry. Origins of Dispensationalism: The Darby Factor (University Press of America, 1992). ISBN 0-8191-8468-3
- Enns, Paul: The Moody Handbook of Theology (Moody, 1989) ISBN 0-8024-3428-2
- Fruchtenbaum, Arnold. "The Footsteps of the Messiah" (Ariel Press, 2003) ISBN 0-914863-09-6
- Grenz, Stanley. The Millennial Maze (InterVarsity, 1992) ISBN 0-8308-1757-3
- LaHaye, Tim, and Jerry B. Jenkins. Are We Living in the End Times? (Tyndale House, 1999) ISBN 0-8423-0098-8
- Reymond, Robert L. New Systematic Theology Of The Christian Faith (Nelson 2d ed., 1998) ISBN 0-8499-1317-9
- Ryrie, Charles C. Dispensationalism (Moody, 1995) ISBN 0-8024-2187-3
- Ryrie, Charles C. Basic Theology (Moody, 1999) ISBN 0-8024-2734-0
- Walvoord, John. The Millennial Kingdom (Zondervan, 1983) ISBN 0-310-34091-8
