Daylight saving time

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Daylight saving time around the world      DST used      DST no longer used      DST never used
Daylight saving time around the world      DST used      DST no longer used      DST never used

Daylight saving time (DST), also summer time in British English, is the convention of advancing clocks so that afternoons have more daylight and mornings have less. Typically clocks are adjusted forward one hour near the start of spring and are adjusted backward in autumn. Presaged by a 1784 satire, DST was first proposed in 1907 by William Willett, and 1916 saw its first widespread use as a wartime measure aimed at conserving coal. Many countries have used DST since then; details vary by location and change occasionally.

Adding daylight to afternoons benefits retailing, sports, and other activities that exploit sunlight after working hours,[1] but causes problems for farmers and other workers whose hours depend on the sun.[2] The extra afternoon daylight also cuts overall traffic fatalities;[3] its effect on health and crime is less clear. DST can save electricity by reducing the need for artificial evening lighting,[4] but it can also boomerang by boosting peak demand, increasing overall electricity costs.[5]

DST's clock shifts complicate timekeeping and can disrupt meetings, travel, billing, medical devices, and heavy equipment.[6] Many computer-based systems can adjust their clocks automatically when DST starts and ends, but their DST settings can be limited and error-prone, particularly when DST rules change.[7] The clock shifts also can serve as twice-yearly reminders to replace smoke alarm batteries and review fire escape plans.[8]

Contents

[edit] Terminology

In the normative form, "daylight saving" is a compound adjective that modifies "time" and is sometimes hyphenated. Common variants include "daylight savings time" and "daylight time".[9][10][11]

Time zone names typically change when DST is observed. American English replaces "standard" with "daylight": for example, Pacific Standard Time (PST) becomes Pacific Daylight Time (PDT). British English uses "summer": for example, Central European Time (CET) becomes Central European Summer Time (CEST). Abbreviations do not always change: for example, many (though not all) Australians say that Eastern Standard Time (EST) becomes Eastern Summer Time (also EST).

The American English mnemonic "spring forward, fall back" (also "spring ahead …" or "spring up …" or "… fall behind") helps people remember which direction to shift clocks. Much of North America now advances clocks before the vernal equinox so the mnemonic is technically incorrect there, but a proposed substitute "March forward …"[12] works only in the northern hemisphere, and is less robust against future DST rule changes.

[edit] Origin

Benjamin Franklin in 1783
Benjamin Franklin in 1783

In 1784 Benjamin Franklin anonymously published a letter informing Parisians that the sun rose before noon, so they could economize by getting up earlier to use morning sunlight, thereby burning fewer candles in the evening.[13] Franklin's mild satire proposed taxing shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells or firing cannons at sunrise, all in the spirit of his earlier proverb "Early to bed and early to rise / Makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise."[14] Franklin did not propose shifting clocks; 18th-century Europe did not keep schedules in the modern sense.[15]

The William Willett Memorial Sundial is always on DST.
The William Willett Memorial Sundial is always on DST.

In 1905 builder and outdoorsman William Willett invented DST during a pre-breakfast horseback ride where he was dismayed by how many Londoners slept through the best part of a summer day.[16] An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk. Two years later he published a proposal for DST which attracted many supporters, including Balfour, Churchill, Lloyd George, and MacDonald. Edward VII also favored DST and had already been using it at Sandringham. However, Prime Minister Asquith opposed the proposal and after many hearings it was narrowly defeated in a Parliament committee vote in 1909. Willett's allies introduced DST bills every year from 1911 through 1914, to no avail.

World War I changed the political equation, as DST was promoted as a way to alleviate hardships from wartime coal shortages and air raid blackouts. Germany, its allies, and their occupied zones were the first Europeans to use DST, starting April 30, 1916. Most belligerents and many European neutrals soon followed suit—for example, the United Kingdom first observed DST on May 21, 1916—but Russia and a few other countries waited until the next year. Australia and Canada followed fitfully, some locations observing DST as early as 1916. However, the measure proved unpopular among farmers, and many countries repealed DST after the war. For example, in 1918 the United States established DST from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October, but Congress repealed DST after 1919; Woodrow Wilson, another avid golfer, vetoed the repeal twice but his second veto was overridden. Since then the world has seen many enactments, adjustments, and repeals of DST, with similar politics involved.

[edit] Benefits and drawbacks

DST shifts sunrise and sunset times in Greenwich in 2007.      STD sunrise      DST sunrise      STD sunset      DST sunset
DST shifts sunrise and sunset times in Greenwich in 2007.      STD sunrise      DST sunrise      STD sunset      DST sunset

Willett's 1907 proposal argued that DST increases opportunities for outdoor leisure activities during afternoon sunlight hours. Obviously DST does not change the length of the day, but the longer days nearer the summer solstice offer more opportunity to shift apparent daylight from morning to evening so that early morning daylight is not wasted.[17]

However, many people ignore DST by altering their nominal work schedules to coordinate with daylight, TV broadcasts, or remote colleagues.[18] Also, DST is commonly not observed during winter, because its mornings are darker: workers may have no sunlit leisure time, and children may need to leave for school in the dark.[19]

[edit] Energy conservation

Artificially delaying sunrise and sunset tends to increase the use of artificial light in the morning and reduce it in the evening. As Franklin's 1784 satire pointed out, energy is conserved if the evening reduction outweighs the morning increase, which can happen if more people need evening light than morning. The U.S. Dept. of Transportation (DOT) concluded in 1975 that DST might reduce the country's electricity usage by 1% during March and April.[4]

However, DST can sometimes increase energy consumption and peak demand, and the rise of air conditioning calls older energy models into question. In 2000 when parts of Australia began DST in late winter, overall electricity consumption did not decrease, but the morning peak load increased.[5] There is no clear evidence that electricity will be saved by the extra DST introduced in North America in 2007,[20] and one Canadian power company reported no immediate decrease.[21]

United Cigar Stores hails 1918 DST bill.
United Cigar Stores hails 1918 DST bill.

[edit] Economic effects

Retailers, sporting goods makers, and other businesses benefit from extra afternoon sunlight. For example, in the UK the sport and leisure industry supports a proposal to observe Single/Double Summer Time (SDST), a variant where clocks are one hour ahead of the sun in winter and two in summer.[22] In the U.S. the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association and the National Association of Convenience Stores successfully lobbied for the 2007 extension to DST;[23] in the mid-1980s Clorox (parent of Kingsford Charcoal) and 7-Eleven provided the primary funding for the Daylight Saving Time Coalition behind the 1987 extension, and both Idaho senators voted to extend DST on the basis of fast-food restaurants selling more French fries made from Idaho potatoes.[1]

DST can adversely affect farmers and others whose hours are set by the sun. For example, grain harvesting is best done after dew evaporates, so when field hands arrive and leave earlier in summer their labor is less valuable.[2] DST also hurts prime-time broadcast ratings.[24]

Clock shifts disrupt sleep patterns, and correlate with decreased economic efficiency. In 2000 the daylight-saving effect implied an estimated one-day loss of $31 billion on U.S. stock exchanges.[25] Clock shifts and DST rule changes also have a direct economic cost, since they entail extra work to support remote meetings, computer applications and the like. For example, a 2007 North American DST rule change cost an estimated $500 million to $1 billion.[26]

[edit] Traffic fatalities

In 1975 the DOT also conservatively identified a 0.7% reduction in traffic fatalities during DST, and estimated the real reduction to be 1.5% to 2%. In 1995 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety estimated an overall reduction of 1.2%, including a 5% reduction in crashes fatal to pedestrians.[3] Others have found similar reductions.[27] SDST has been projected to reduce overall traffic fatalities by 3% to 4% in the UK, compared to the current DST regime.[28]

It is not clear whether sleep disruption contributes to fatal accidents immediately after the spring and autumn clock shifts. A correlation between clock shifts and accidents has been observed in the U.S. but not in Sweden. If this twice-yearly effect exists, it is far smaller than the overall reduction in fatalities.[29][30]

[edit] Health

DST provides more afternoon sunlight for outdoor exercise, which can contribute greatly to overall health. DST also influences health by altering sunlight exposure; whether this is beneficial depends on one's location and daily schedule. Sunlight triggers vitamin D synthesis in the skin but overexposure can lead to skin cancer. Sunlight also strongly influences seasonal affective disorder; DST may be helpful in depression by causing individuals to arise earlier[31] but some argue the reverse.[32] The Retinitis Pigmentosa Foundation Fighting Blindness, chaired by blind sports magnate Gordon Gund, successfully lobbied in 1985 and 2005 for DST extensions,[1][23] but DST can also hurt night blindness sufferers.[33] The government of Kazakhstan cited health complications due to clock shifts as a primary reason for abolishing DST in 2005.[34]

[edit] Crime

In the 1970s the U.S. Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) found a reduction of 10% to 13% in Washington, D.C.'s violent crime rate during DST. However, the LEAA did not filter out other factors, and it examined only two cities and found crime reductions only in one and only in some crime categories; the DOT decided it was "impossible to conclude with any confidence that comparable benefits would be found nationwide."[35] While outdoor lighting makes potential crime victims feel safer, it may actually encourage crime.[36]

A 2001 reminder
A 2001 reminder

[edit] Complexity

DST's clock shifts have the obvious disadvantage of complexity. People must remember to change their clocks. People who work across time zone boundaries need to keep track of multiple DST rules. Not all locations observe DST. The length of the day becomes variable. Disruption to meetings, travel, broadcasts, and billing systems is common, and in some cases expensive.[37]

Near an autumn transition from 02:00 to 01:00, a clock reads times from 01:00 to 02:00 twice, leading to confusion in birth certificates and the like.[38]

DST inherits the disadvantages of standard time, sometimes making them worse. For example, when reading a sundial one must compensate for DST in addition to time zone and natural discrepancies.[39]

Some clock-shift problems could be avoided by adjusting clocks continuously[40] or at least more gradually—for example, Willett originally suggested weekly 20-minute transitions—but this would add further complexity and has never been implemented.

[edit] Computer clocks

Some computer-based systems may require downtime or restarting when clocks shift. Ignoring this requirement damaged a German steel facility in 1993.[6] Medical devices may generate adverse events that could harm patients and not be obvious to clinicians responsible for care.[41] These problems are compounded when the DST rules themselves change, as in the Y2K7 problem. Software developers must test and perhaps modify many programs, and users must install updates and restart applications.[7]

These problems can be avoided by adopting Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is unaffected by DST, but UTC is unsuitable for many applications due to its unfamiliarity.

[edit] Social choice

General agreement about the day's layout confers so many advantages that a standard DST schedule usually outranks ad hoc efforts to get up earlier, even if you personally dislike the schedule.[42] However, critics of standardizing DST "detect the bony, blue-fingered hand of Puritanism, eager to push people into bed earlier, and get them up earlier, to make them healthy, wealthy and wise in spite of themselves."[43]

[edit] When it starts and ends

Main article: Daylight saving time around the world
Springing forward
Springing forward

In a typical case where a one-hour shift occurs at 02:00 local time, in spring the clock jumps forward from 02:00 standard time to 03:00 DST and the day has 23 hours, whereas in autumn the clock jumps backward from 02:00 DST to 01:00 standard time, repeating that hour, and the day has 25 hours. A digital display of local time does not read 02:00 exactly, but instead jumps from (say) 01:59:59.9 either forward to 03:00:00.0 or backward to 01:00:00.0.

Clock shifts are usually scheduled near a weekend midnight to lessen disruption to weekday schedules. A one-hour shift is customary, but Lord Howe Island uses a half-hour shift. Twenty-minute and two-hour shifts have been used in the past.

Start and end dates and times vary with location and year. Since 1996 European Summer Time has been observed from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October, with clocks shifted at 01:00 UTC; previously DST was not uniform across the European Community. Starting in 2007, most of the United States and Canada observe DST from the second Sunday in March to the first Sunday in November, shifting clocks typically at 02:00 local time.[44] The 2007 U.S. change was part of the Energy Policy Act of 2005; previously, from 1987 through 2006, the start and end dates were the first Sunday in April and the last Sunday in October, and Congress retains the right to go back to the previous dates once an energy-consumption study is done.

Beginning and ending dates are the reverse in the southern hemisphere. For example, mainland Chile observes DST from the second Saturday in October to the second Saturday in March, with transitions at 24:00 local time. The time difference between the United Kingdom and mainland Chile may therefore be three, four, or five hours, depending on the time of year.

Argentina, western China, Iceland, and other areas skew time zones westward, in effect observing DST year round without complications from DST shifts. For example, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan is at 106°39′W longitude, slightly west of center of the idealized Mountain Time Zone (105°W), but Saskatchewan observes Central Standard Time (90°W) year-round so Saskatoon is always about 67 minutes ahead of mean solar time. The United Kingdom and Ireland experimented with year-round DST from 1968 to 1971 but abandoned it because of its unpopularity, particularly in the north.[45]

Western France, Spain, and other areas skew time zones in addition to shifting clocks, in effect observing DST in winter with an extra hour of DST in summer. For example, Nome, Alaska is at 165°24′W longitude, which is just west of center of the idealized Samoa Time Zone (165°W), but Nome observes Alaska Time (135°W) with DST so it is slightly more than two hours ahead of the sun in winter and three in summer.

DST is generally not observed near the equator, where sunrise times do not vary enough to justify it. Only a minority of the world's population uses DST because Asia and Africa mostly do not observe it.

[edit] Computing

Many computer-based systems can shift their clocks automatically when DST starts and finishes, based on their time zone settings.

[edit] Zoneinfo

The zoneinfo database maps a name to the named location's historical and predicted clock shifts. This database is used by many computer software systems, including most Unix-like operating systems, Java, and Oracle.[46] When temporal authorities change DST rules, zoneinfo updates are installed as part of ordinary system maintenance. In Unix-like systems a process's TZ environment variable specifies the location name, as in TZ='America/New_York'.

Some older or stripped-down systems support only the TZ values required by POSIX, which specify at most one start and end rule explicitly in the value. For example, TZ='EST5EDT,M3.2.0/02:00,M11.1.0/02:00' specifies DST for eastern North America starting 2007. TZ must be changed whenever DST rules change, and the new TZ value applies to all years, mishandling some older time stamps.[47]

[edit] Microsoft Windows

The procedure for adjusting and patching the DST configuration of Microsoft Windows varies with release.[48] Windows Vista supports at most two DST start and end rules per time zone setting. In a Canadian location observing DST, a single Vista setting would support both post-2006 and 1987–2006 time stamps, while mishandling some older time stamps. Older Microsoft Windows systems usually store only a single start and end rule for each zone, so the same Canadian setting would reliably support only post-2006 time stamps.[49]

These limitations have caused several problems. For example, before 2005, DST in Israel varied each year and was skipped some years. Windows 95 used DST rules correct for 1995 only, causing problems in later years. In Windows 98 Microsoft gave up and marked Israel as not having DST, causing Israeli users to shift their computer clocks manually twice a year. The 2005 Israeli Daylight Saving Law established predictable rules but Windows zone files cannot represent the rules' dates in a year-independent way. Partial workarounds include manually switching zone files every year[50] and a Microsoft tool that switches zones automatically.[51]

[edit] Associated practices

Fire safety officials encourage citizens to use the two annual clock shifts as reminders to replace batteries in smoke and carbon monoxide detectors. This is especially important in autumn, just before the heating and candle season causes an increase in home fires. Similar twice-yearly tasks include reviewing and practicing fire escape and family disaster plans, inspecting vehicle lights, checking storage areas for hazardous materials, and reprogramming thermostats.[52][8]

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b c James C. Benfield (2001-05-24). "Testimony before the House Energy Subcommittee, on the energy conservation potential of extended and double daylight saving time". Serial No. 107-30.
  2. ^ a b Daylight savings time. Session Weekly. Minnesota House Public Information Office (1991). Retrieved on 2003-03-21. “… the Minneapolis Star, Jan. 28, 1959.… [wrote] 'Farmers complained that they cannot get into the fields any earlier than under standard time … because the morning sun does not dry the dew "on daylight savings time."'”
  3. ^ a b Susan A. Ferguson; David F. Preusser; Adrian K. Lund; Paul L. Zador; Robert G. Ulmer (1995-01). "Daylight saving time and motor vehicle crashes: the reduction in pedestrian and vehicle occupant fatalities". American Journal of Public Health 85 (1): 92-95. PMID 7832269. 
  4. ^ a b Linda L. Lawson (2001-05-24). "Testimony before the House Energy Subcommittee, on the energy conservation potential of extended and double daylight saving time". Serial No. 107-30.
  5. ^ a b Ryan Kellogg; Hendrik Wolff (2007-01). "Does extending daylight saving time save energy? Evidence from an Australian experiment". CSEMWP 163. Center for the Study of Energy Markets.
  6. ^ a b Peter G. Neumann (1994-10-18). "Computer date and time problems", Computer-related risks. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-55805-X. 
  7. ^ a b Stephen Tong; Joseph Williams (2007). "Are you prepared for daylight saving time in 2007?". IT Professional 9 (1): 36-41. 
  8. ^ a b U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission; U.S. Fire Administration (2007-03-09). CSPC and USFA encourage consumers to spring forward with fire safety in mind. Press release.
  9. ^ Richard A. Meade (1978-12). "Language change in this century". English Journal 67 (9): 27-30. DOI:10.2307/815124. 
  10. ^ "daylight-saving time", The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed., Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-82517-2. “Variant Forms: or daylight-savings time” 
  11. ^ "daylight saving time", Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary. Retrieved on 2007-03-08. “called also daylight saving, daylight savings, daylight savings time, daylight time” 
  12. ^ DST mnemonic. The Language Realm blog (2007-03-12). Retrieved on 2007-03-20.
  13. ^ Benjamin Franklin (1784-04-26). "An economical project" (reprint). Journal of Paris.  The essay's title is not Franklin's; see A.O. Aldridge (1956-03). "Franklin's essay on daylight saving". American Literature 28 (1): 23-29. 
  14. ^ Seymour Stanton Block (2006-02). "Benjamin Franklin: America's inventor". American History. Retrieved on 2007-02-16. 
  15. ^ Eviatar Zerubavel (1982-07). "The standardization of time: a sociohistorical perspective". The American Journal of Sociology 88 (1): 1-23. 
  16. ^ David Rooney. Royal Observatory commemorates William Willett. Petts Wood & District Residents' Association. Retrieved on 2007-03-27.
  17. ^ William Willett (1907-07). "The waste of daylight".
  18. ^ Daniel S. Hamermesh; Caitlin Knowles Myers; Mark L. Pocock (2006-07). "Time zones as cues for coordination: latitude, longitude, and Letterman". Working Paper No. W12350. National Bureau of Economic Research.
  19. ^ Heidi G. Yacker (2002-12-17). "Daylight saving time". 98-99 C, updated December 17, 2002. Congressional Research Service.
  20. ^ Adrienne Kandel (2007-02-22). "Electricity savings from early daylight saving time". CEC-200-2007-001. California Energy Commission.
  21. ^ Cindy Cline. "Early daylight saving time hasn't saved energy in Ottawa", CFRA, 2007-03-21.
  22. ^ Single/Double Summer Time policy paper. Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (2006-10).
  23. ^ a b Alex Beam. "Dim-witted proposal for daylight time", Boston Globe, 2005-07-26.
  24. ^ Rick Kissell. "Daylight-saving dock ratings", Variety, 2007-03-20.
  25. ^ Mark J. Kamstra; Lisa A. Kramer; Maurice D. Levi (2000-09). "Losing sleep at the market: the daylight saving anomaly". The American Economic Review 90 (4): 1005-1011. 
  26. ^ Ben Arnoldy. "Latest computer glitch: daylight saving time", Christian Science Monitor, 2007-03-07.
  27. ^ Douglas Coate; Sara Markowitz (2003-04-10). "The effects of daylight and daylight saving time on US pedestrian fatalities and motor vehicle occupant fatalities". Accident Analysis & Prevention 36 (3): 351-357. DOI:10.1016/S0001-4575(03)00015-0. 
  28. ^ J. Broughton; M. Stone (1998). "A new assessment of the likely effects on road accidents of adopting SDST". TRL368. Transport Research Laboratory.
  29. ^ Jason Varughese; Richard P. Allen (2001-01-04). "Fatal accidents following changes in daylight savings time: the American experience". Sleep Medicine 2 (1): 31-36. DOI:10.1016/S1389-9457(00)00032-0. 
  30. ^ Mats Lambe; Peter Cummings (2000-06-13). "The shift to and from daylight savings time and motor vehicle crashes". Accident Analysis & Prevention 32 (4): 609-611. DOI:10.1016/S0001-4575(99)00088-3. 
  31. ^ Henry Olders (2003-08-13). "Average sunrise time predicts depression prevalence". Journal of Psychosomatic Research 55 (2): 99-105. DOI:10.1016/S0022-3999(02)00479-8. 
  32. ^ Shari Roan. "Change in daylight saving time may affect moods", Los Angeles Times, 2007-03-05.
  33. ^ Daylight savings. Moderatrix Musings (2007-03-12). Retrieved on 2007-03-28. “I now have to drive to work in the dark. This is a real problem for me as I've got terrible night blindness and avoid driving in the dark at all costs. It's just not safe (especially for the other drivers since I can't tell where they are.)”
  34. ^ Kazakhstan abolishes daylight saving time. Kazakhstan Society in the UK (2005-03-21). Retrieved on 2007-03-28.
  35. ^ House Committee on Energy and Commerce, Subcommittee on Energy Conservation and Power (1985-04-24). Daylight saving time, Serial No. 99-4. U.S. GPO, 26. 
  36. ^ B.A.J. Clark (2003). "Outdoor lighting and crime, part 2: coupled growth". Astronomical Society of Victoria.
  37. ^ Paul McDougall. "PG&E says patching meters for an early daylight-saving time will cost $38 million", InformationWeek, 2007-03-01.
  38. ^ Daylight saving time: rationale and original idea. Retrieved on 2007-02-06.
  39. ^ Ann Parker. "Sundials put old slant on telling time", Santa Cruz Sentinel, 2007-03-11.
  40. ^ Jesse Ruderman (2006-11-01). Continuous daylight saving time. Indistinguishable from Jesse. Retrieved on 2007-03-21.
  41. ^ Daniel G. Schultz (2007-03-01). Unpredictable events in medical equipment due to new daylight savings time change. Center for Devices and Radiological Health, Food and Drug Administration.
  42. ^ Thomas C. Schelling [1972] (2006). "Hockey helmets, daylight saving, and other binary choices", Micromotives and Macrobehavior. W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-32946-1. 
  43. ^ Robertson Davies (1947). "XIX, Sunday", The Diary of Samuel Marchbanks. Clarke, Irwin. 
  44. ^ Tom Baldwin. "US gets summertime blues as the clocks go forward 3 weeks early", The Times, 2007-03-12.
  45. ^ Philip Johnston. "Is it time to lighten our darkness?", The Daily Telegraph, 2007-01-22.
  46. ^ Paul Eggert; Arthur David Olson (2007-03-13). Sources for time zone and daylight saving time data. Retrieved on 2007-03-23.
  47. ^ The Open Group (2004). "Other environment variables", IEEE Std 1003.1-2004. 
  48. ^ Daylight saving time help and support center (2007-03-13). Retrieved on 2007-03-22.
  49. ^ Visual Studio and Daylight Saving Time Change (2007). Retrieved on 2007-03-22.
  50. ^ Windows daylight savings timezones for Israel (2005-04-20). Retrieved on 2007-03-22.
  51. ^ Microsoft support entry regarding daylight saving time in Israel (Hebrew). Retrieved on 2007-03-22.
  52. ^ "Turn back your clocks", Consumer Reports, 2006-10.

[edit] Further reading

[edit] External links

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